88 polities lowershimmoralyandintellectualyuntilhebecomesthe creatureofhisappetites,theperfecttotalitariansubject. "Alows"nihiismtotakeroot,formanhasnotbeenpushed intothisconditionbyirresistibleforces,buthasconsented, perhapspassively,toit.Hewasfreetodriftintonihilism andisfreetoreclaimhisrightfulheritageasthe animal rationale. "BatleandOtherCombatantCasualitiesMtheSecond WorldWar"byAlfredVagts.TheJournalofPolitics, November,1945. Workingwithlimitedstatistics,VagisatemptsanestimationofthedeadlinessoftheSecondWorldWarbycom- paringitwiththeFirstWorldWarinthreeways:1) in ratiosofdeadtowounded;2) inratiosoflossesindead tolossesinprisoners;3) in ratiosofwoundedwhodied towoundedsaved. IntheSecondWorldWar,therewasanunmistakableincreaseintherelativenumberkiled,themeanratioforthe FirstWorldWarbeing1killedto6wounded,andforthe SecondWorldWar,from1:1.4fortheBritishEmpireto 1:3.52forGermany.Vacsascribesthisincreasetothe improvementofartilleryandbombingandthereplace- mentofriflesbythese;greaterfanaticism;anddrownings inamphibiousenterprises,shipwrecks,andsinkingsof transports. Theratioofdeadleftonthebattlefieldtoprisoners, woundedandunwounded,takenbythevictor,reflectferociousorweakresistance,goodorbadmoraleinthelosing side,differentcodesofhonorandoutlookuponlifeand survivalinbattle.Thusthewarwasmostferociousinthe Pacifictheater,wheretheUnitedStatesArmykilledthousandsofJapanese,butintwoyearscapturedonly377, against110,000Germansand170,000Italiansduringthe sametime.OntheRussianfront,theratiosofGerman deadtoprisonerstakenbytheRussiansdonotvaryenough topointtoanyseriousdeteriorationofGermanmorale. Russiatookcaretomakecaptivityextremelyharshfor itssoldiersbynotenteringuponinternationalagreements astotreatmentofprisoners.Thisefectivelyreducedits ratioofdeadtoprisonersoftheFirstWorldWar(17:25), thuseliminatingwhatLenincalleda"save-file-skinmental T it hy e ." ratioofwoundedwhodiedtowoundedsavedhas improvedfrom1:9intheWarof1870-71,to1:17inthe FirstWorldWar,toabout1:40asameanaverageinthe SecondWorldWar.Thisimprovement,however,hasfailed tocompensateforthehigherrelativenumberofcombatants killed. "SociologicalElementsinVehiclesTheory"byArthur K.Davis.TheJournalofPoliticalEconomy,June,1945. DavisseesVeblen'scontributiontosocialtheoryinthe issuesheraisedratherthanthewayhesolvedthem,inhis insistenceontheintegrationofeconomicswiththemain bodyofsocialthoughtratherthaninthewayinwhichhe attemptedtheirintegration. Veblen'sextremeempiricismledhimtorejectclassical economcisonthreegrounds:(1) intreatingeconomicsas ascienceseparatefromageneralsocialscience,itfailedto explainconcretereality;(2) itwasteleologicaloranimis- tic,relyingonindividualself-restrainttoproducethemaximumgroupwelfare;(3) itwasataxomanicscience,con- cernedwithstaticcategoriesina"normalequilibrium", whereasthemachineagewasanever-changingprocess. Havingrejectedtheclassicalapproachtoeconomics,Veblen BtzdsholepefitrincÀoilennrx,forbothwereessentialy moralists,thoughVeblenwastheprobingironist,notthe revolutionaryprophet.Histhoughtwasrootedinthenineteenthcenturycanonsofprogressandmaterialwelfare,to whichminorityinterestsweretobesubordinated. Veblenmadenocomprehensiveorexplicitcritiqueof modemsociety,butratheratackedspecificabuses,such astendenciestowardrestrictedoutputtomaintainprices andthemaldistributionofwealth.Hesawcapitalismasa wholeassuperfluousluxury,frustratedlaborandtechno- logy,andanintensecompetitivenesswhichmadeanethical approachtoeconomicsalmostimpossibleunderthatsystem. Indemandingthateconomicsberelatedtothebroader streamofsocialthought,Veblenmixedscienceandethics indiscriminately;ininsistingonconsideringideologiesand al ofknowledgeasfunctionsofasocio-culturalmilieuin allphasesofinvestigation,Veblensetanimpossiblegoal forhimself.Theresultwasascientificnihilismwhich deniedthevalidityofresearchinspecialfields. Davis'scommentisthatinthecomplexmodemworldit isimpossibletobeginresearchineconomicsbytakinginto accountalltherelatednon-economicfactors,forthesubject wouldsoonincludesuchagreatpartofhumanknowledge andactivitythattheresultwouldbechaos.Heconcludes thatsocialscienceandsocialethicsmustbekeptdistinct butthattheresultsofeachmustbemadeavailabletothe other.Bothmustmaketheircontributiontothenecessary ethicalawakeningandsocialreorganization.Veblenwasa pioneerinraisingtheissueoftheintegrationofeconomics andethics,buthissolutiontotheproblemwàsanim- possibleone. KATHRYNCARLISLE Books ANIMALFARM:AFairyStory.ByGeorgeOrwel. London:Seeker&Warburg6 shilings. WhentheanimalsoftheManorFarmdroveouttheir humanmasters,slammedshutthegate,andtookovercompletemanagementoftheirownaffairs,theylookedforward toahappyAnimalisticstateinwhicheachmembershould contributetothecommonwelfareaccordingtohisstrength, whileeachsharedinthecommonpoolofproductsaccordingtohisneed.Major,theoldboar,nowdead,hadtaught themthetruegospel:thatthelifeofananimal,under humanexploitation,wasmiseryandslavery;thatallmen wereenemies,whileallanimalswerecomrades;thatthe revolutionwasinevitable,afterwhichanimalsolidarity wouldproduceaperfectsociety.Well,therevolutionhad come,thehumanexploitershadfled,andnothingnow remainedbuttoenterintopossessionofthepromisedland. Intheirenthusiasm,theanimalssangtheirrevolutionary hymn,"BeastsofEngland,"seventimesthroughwithout oncestopping. Itwasnaturalthatthepigsshouldassumeleadership, fortheywerethemostinteligentofthefarm'sinhabitants, andamongthepigsNapoleonandSnowbalwerepreeminentlygifted.Sothesetwotookoverthearduousduties ofleadership,thefirstofwhichwastoreplacethename ManorFarmbythatofAnimalFarm,whilethenextwas topaintonthebigbarntheSevenCommandmentsto whichtheprinciplesofAnimalismhadbeenreducedby threemonthsofporcinestudy.Thesecommandments—the firstreading,Whatevergoesupontwolegsisanenemy,"
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