MARCH,1946 87 revivalofethicalprinciplesiftheyarelostintheprocess ofbuildingsuchasociety. IsGunnarMyrdalontheRightTrack"byLeoP. Crespi.ThePublicOpinionQuarterly,Summer,1945 CrespipointsoutthedangerofMyrdal'sassertionthat theNegroproblemisprimarilyamoralissue,andshows howMyrdal,inAnAmericanDilemma:TheNegroProblem andModernDemocracy, contradictshiscentralthesis. Tomaintain,asMyrdaldoes,thattheNegroproblemis amoraloneistoimplythatitsdeterminantsandsolution lieinthemoralrealm,thatit istheindividualwhomust becuredofprejudicebyeducation,andnotsocietyby socio-economicreform.Crespishowstheraceproblemto beasocio-economiconebycitingMyrdal'sownanalysis: (1)liberalismisanimportantfactorinthesolutionofthe Negroproblem;(2)becauseoftheirinsecureeconomic status,themassesofpoorpeoplearenotliberal;(3)the firstpracticalstepinincreasingliberalismistoliftthe economicstatusofthemasses.ThusMyrdalcontradicts himselfinhisdenialoftheimportanceofeconomicsinthis proAbgleamin, . MyrdaladmitsthattheupperclassesarelessprejudicedagainsttheNegrothanthelowerclasses,whoare ineconomiccompetitionwithNegroes. I f racialprejudice isamoralproblem,whythegreatdiferenceindegreeof prejudiceamongpeopleofdifferenteconomiclevels?Or aretherichmoremoralthanthepoor? IfMyrdalmeansbymoralthattheindividualisthe locus oftheproblem,thewordisbadlyused.Hemakesclear thatprejudiceispromptedbydesireforhighereconomicor socialstatus,thatwhitesdonotconsciouslyrecognizethis asthecauseoftheirprejudice,butinsteadmakeelaborate rationalizationsof it. But tobemoral,bothsidesofa conflictmustbeconsciouslyrecognized.Educationcould maketheNegroproblemamoralissue,butsofarwhites haveignoredthispoint. "OnContemporaryNihilism"byAronGurwitsch. The ReviewofPolitics,April1945. "Atthepresenttime,"theauthorbeginsthisiluminating studyofanimportantmoralproblemofourtime,"reason isnotheldinanytoogreatesteem;'rationalism'isde- precatedinmostintelectualcircles.'Tobelieveinreason' istobebehindthetimes,togiveevidenceofamodeof thinkingthatisoutofdate,outofcontactwithwhattoday iscaled'progress.' "The'beliefinreason'isnowreplacedbyallsortsof psychologicalandsociologicalsciences.. . .Formerlyman wasconsideredtobean animalrationale, arationalbeing; nowhehasbecomesimplyavitalbeing,notfurtherquali- fied.Sincemanlivesincommunitywithhisfelows,itwas formerlythepracticetoinquireintothestructureandor- ganizationwhichsocietyoughttohaveinordertocorrespondtotherationalandhumannatureofitsmembers. Buttodaynosuchquestionisraised;itistakenforgranted thatman,asasocialanimal,mustadjusthimselftohis environmentorsuffertheconsequencestohiswell-being andhishappiness. It isnolongeraquestionofwhether onemayoroneshouldadjustoneselftocertainsocialconditions;itisnowonlyaquestionofwhatisthemostefec- tivemeansortechniqueofadjustment." Thispsychologicalnaturalismandthephilosophicalre- lativismwhichaccompaniesit,Gurwitschtriestoshow logicalyculminateintotalitarianism.Healsoarguesthat theirrootisnihilism,whichhedefinesas"thesubstitution of'concrete'things[heinstances"biologicaladvantages, BibliotecaGinoBianco satisfactionofdesiresandneeds,utility"] for'abstractions' [heinstances "truth . . . justice"]." Psychologicalnaturalismrepresents man asprimarilya vitalbeing,endowedwithreasonasaninstrumenttoachieve theinterestsofhisanimality.Ideasareproducedbythe individualreactingtopurelycausalcircumstances,hispsychologicalset-upbeingdeterminedbysimilarcauses.Thus oneideaisasgoodastheother,forbotharetheresultof certaincauseswhichcouldbetraced,both arebut atempts ofindividualstoadjusttotheirsurroundingsbyusing reasonasatool.Therecanbeonlydiferencesofopinion, notquestionsoftruthorfalsity,sincenoonecanhelphavinghisparticularsetofopinions;hencethebestthingto dois totolerate,orbeindiferent to, all ideasandthe actionsspringingfromthemunlesstheyinterferewith one'sownpersonalinterests.Puresubjectivismistheonly basisonwhichactsandideascanbecondemned,forpsy- chologicalnaturalismrecognizesnoabstracttruthasan objectivestandard. Oneconsequenceof thisapproachis thatthethinker yieldstothepropagandist.Theproblemisnolongerto leadmenthroughreasonandinteligencetoenlightenment, toeliminationofprejudicesanderrors,totruth,but,given thementalcompositionofagroup,toinducethatgroupto acceptacertainproposition,regardlessof theright or wrong,truthorfalsityof it. Thefull implicationofpsychologicalnaturalismbegins toa•2:anDenyingthevalidity ofabstractnotions of trute justice, takingwhatthemassofmankindcanbe madnoacceptasthecriterion of "truth",casting all thoughtintoabotomlessseaof relativism, "itbecomes possible,bystartingfrom the basicprinciplesofpsychologicalnaturalismandrelativisticphilosophy,toarriveat totalitarianismbyapurelylogicalconstruction."Thepsychologistsofthatschoolwouldsaythattotalitarianismisthe abuseofcontrolingmanthroughknowledgeofthecauses ofhisbehavior;buttodistinguishbetweenabuseandlegi- timateusetheremustbeanabstractstandardformaking thedistinction. Nosuchstandard ispossible in their scheme,however. Psychologicalnaturalismisthenegationoftheprinciple inwhosenamethewarwasfought,"equalityofallmen and allnations." Inemphasizingman'sanimalqualities,this doctrinestripshimofthedignityofsimplybeingahuman being.Manhassucceededinovercominganimals;there- fore,heismerelyasuperioranimal andshoulddominate hisinferiors. Recognize,however,thatreasonis what constitutes man asahumanbeing,andthereisnodifficultyinestablishing theprinciple ofhumanequality.Besidethisonegreat distinguishingdeterminant, all concretelyascertainabledis- similaritiesamongmenbecomeinsignificant. It becomes man'smoraldutytoexaminesocietywithintelectual in- tegrityandtorejecttheunreasonablein it, for ifhealows unreasontoexist inhisinstitutions,hechalenges,byhis ownhandiwork, that whichmakes him ahumanbeing, reaTs r oune . toleranceisbornofreason,ofarecognitionof all menasbearersof mankind'sdistinguishingquality, for it assumesthatthedifferingopinionisalsooriented toward truthandistherefore worthyofconsiderationandrespect. Manisnotanimpotentcreaturedrivenbyblindforces. Heisarationalandthereforeafreecreature,forhecan "conceiveofstatesdiferentfromtheonewhichactualy exists;hecantake hisstand and formhisdecisionsin regardtotheactualsituation, andfinally,hecanactin accordancewiththesedecisions." Oncemanallowsnihilismtotakeroot,itprogressively
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