MARCH,1946 81 Hegelisthustypical of theidealistsystem-buildersin thathissystemisethicalallthrough,butresemblesrather theempiricistsinallottingaspecialsmallcornerof his systemtohissubstantiveethicalteaching,andinhis indiferencetothisteaching. Thepronouncementsonethicsandtheimplicitethical assumptionsoftheMarxistclassicsfallunderthreeheads: (1)thoseof strictlymaterialisticcharacter, i.e.ananalysis—logical,anthropological,psychological,"historical" ofethics,ethicstreatedasaphenomenon,withatendency-toignoreoreventodenyethicsasnormative; (2) smuggel d-inHegelianethics; (3) theethicalaimswhich Marxismasa"practical"philosophy,apolitical"move- ment",putsbeforethepublic. Afewfamiliarquotationswillremindthereaderofwhat Ireferto. (1)EthicsAsHistoricallyRelative OnthematerialistanalysisofethicsEngels's Anti-Duk ring istheclassicalsource: " . . . allformermoraltheories aretheproduct,inthelastanalysis,oftheeconomicstage whichsocietyhadreachedatthatparticularepoch.And associetyhashithertomovedinclass-antagonisms,morality wasalwaysaclass-morality." (Anti-Duhring 1,9)Karl KautskyinEthicsandtheMaterialistConceptionofHistory andAchilleLoriainPart I of "TheEconomicFoundations ofSociety" havedevelopedthisthesis. I t has,in itssim- plerform,becomeoneofthebestestablishedMarxistcommon-places. Thoughcompatiblewithethics,materialismhasnopositiveethicalimplications,andaccordinglymaterialiststend todenyethics.TherelativityofEngels'sanalysismakes thisall themoreplausible.Hehimselfdrawstheinfer- ence:"Wethereforerejecteveryattempttoimposeonus anymoraldogmawhatsoeverasaneternal,ultimateand foreverimmutablemorallaw." (ib) Marxoftenshowedafairlyfar-reachingethicalsceptic- ismorindiference:"thecommunistsdonotpreachmorality. . .Theydonotdesiretoturntheprivateindividual intoaprofessional 'for-love-sacrificing',creature. But theyalonehavediscoveredthatwhathavebeencalled 'generalinterests'inthewholecourseofhistoryhaverealy beentheextensionof the'privateinterests'of particular men. . . Theoppositionbetweenthetwoformsof interestisonlyapparent."(quotedbySidneyHookin From HegeltoMarx, p.181)Thisstatementseemstobe,and istakenbyHooktobe,aderivationofdutyfrominterest. It isnowgeneralyagreedthatsuchderivation is impossible. rn anycaseit isadenialofobligation,afunda- mentalethicalcategory. SeveralotherstatementsbyMarxofsimilarimplication couldbequoted."Forus,Communismisnotacondition ofafairswhich'ought' tobe. . . " (GermanIdeology) Hedenouncedthosewhowanted"to givesocialism'a higher,idealisttendency',or inotherwordstoreplacethe materialistbasisofsocialism. . .withamodernmythology whosegodsareLiberty,EqualityandFraternity."(Letter toSorge,qu.byFranzMehrinzin KarlMarx, p.514) Heapologisedforusingtheexpression"toacknowledge truth,justiceandmoralityasthebasisofconduct"inthe StatutesoftheFirstInternational(LettertoEngels,qu.by Hookin From_HezeL.toMarx, p. 218). He criticised BibliotecaGinoBianco Heinzenforconsideringtheproblemofpropertyinterms of"right"and"suchlikesimplequestionofconscience andpiousphrases". (SelectedEssays, p.141) Theseshouldbeenoughto illustratethetendencyto slightethics,andshowhownearlysophilosophicalan intelectasMarxcametocompleteself-contradictionby denyingitaltogether.. . . (2) TheEthicsofProgress Inregardtosmuggled-inHegelianism, itwouldbepos- sibleperhapstoillustrateatendencyamongMarxiststo echoallthepeculiaritiesoftheHegeliandoctrinementioned. ThusHegel'srelegationofmoralitytoonecornerofhis systemconcernedwithinstitutionslikepropertyandthe family,couldprobablybeparaleledinMarxism.Certainlyhistreatmentofethicsasjustanaturalphenomenon iscommon.ThusPlekhanov:"Jaures . . . talksabout morality,which, touseTaine'sexpression,givesinjunc- tions;whereastheMarxists, inwhatmaybecaledtheir moralteaching,only try tostatelaws." (Essaysonthe HistoryofMaterialism,p.262) . . . IhavealreadyquotedevidenceoftheMarxiancontempt formoralitywhichprobablyderivesasmuchfromHegel asfrommaterialism. I t ishardlynecessarytodwellon thehostilityshowntosubjectivemorality.Levyatacks asobsoletetheconception"that 'I'havetodecidewhat 'I' shouldorshouldnotdo. . . it is'my'consciencethattells mewhetherthis is right orwrong" (Thinking, p.195). SimilarlyMarxiststendto followHegel ingivingright motivesnogreatervaluethantrueopinions.Marxistauthors againlikeHegeltakedelightinshowing(whatisofcourse true)that insomecasesdefianceofthelawsofmorality hasproducedgoodresults.GenghisKhan'sandNapoleon's campaignsandIvantheTerrible'sexcesseshaveallbeen declaredprogressive. ThisbringsustothemostcharacteristicalyHegelian belief,that ofprogress.Marxistauthorsarealwaysrepudiatingteleology,but thechargeisalwaysbeingre- newed. I t is infactatthebackofmanyMarxianminds, andsometimesslipsout.Engelssays:"Theworld. . . is madeupofprocesses,inwhichinspiteofallseemingaccidents,andinspite of allmomentaryset-backs,thereis cariedoutintheendofprogressivedevelopment." (Feuerbach, Kerredn.pp.96-7)Plekhanovsays:"Humanreason .. .movesforwardinitsdevelopmentonlythankstoeconomicnecessity,butpreciselyfor thatreasonthereally reasonablemustnotremainforeverintheconditionofthe ideal."(Essays,p.272)Heckersays:"Contradictionleads forward. ThisistherevolutionarydoctrineofHegelwhich wasrediscoveredandbrilliantlyappliedtohistorybyMarx andEngels." (MoscowDialogues) Lewissays:"Philosophyistheself-consciousnessofaself-moving,self-directing worldinaprocessofprogressivedevelopment." (Textbook ofMarxistPhilosophy,p.21) Infact intheclassicalMarxists,progressisadominant idea,andamainsourceof theirethicalbeliefs.Thus Lenin'smuch-quotedstatement:"Ourmoralityiswholy subordinatedtotheinterestsof theclass-struggleof the proletariat.Wededuceourmoralityfromthefactsand needsof theclass-struggleof theproletariat." I donot saythiscouldnotbejustifiedintermsofothertheories, but italmostcertainlydidspringfromatacitbelief ina
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