80 p o l i t i e s universerespectsman'svalues,that it isaplaceinwhich hecanfeelathome.Ethicsforthistypeofphilosophyis morethanadepartment, it isimplicit inthewholestruc- ture. I t isnotanodditypeculiartoman,butapervasive featureofthewholeuniverse.And it tendstobenorma- tiveethics.Theattitudeofneutralityisoutofplacein suchatheory. TheMarxianDilemma Marxismis amaterialisttheory. I t cannotregardits universeashavinganyethicalcharacteristicsorimposing anyobligationsuponmen.Theuniversemaybeevolving inanascertainabledirection,buttherecanbenoreasonfor regardingthisdirectiona priori asethicalydesirableor otherwise.Ethicalcategoriesareahumanaffair,andhave nomorethanhumanauthority.That istosay,Marxism, sofaras it isamaterialistphilosophy,hasnopositive ethicalimplications. No ethicalsystemcanbededuced fromMarxism. ButMarxismisnotmerelycontemplative,notmerelya philosophy. I t doesnotsetoutmerelytodiscoverthe natureof theuniverse: it setsout tobringaboutcertain practicalchangesintheuniverse.Nowpeopleclaimingto bemenofprinciple,notmereadventurersorcareerists,who setouttodosomethingpractical,andurgeotherstojoin in,mustjustifywhattheyproposetodo.And tojustify istoshowthat it is rightaccordingultimately toan ethicalcriterion. Nocharacteristicofanactotherthanitsethicalrightnessorthegoodnessof itsaimwillserveasjustification. Inancienttimes itseemstohavebeenthoughtthat if a prophethadprophesiedacertainaction,thatwasjustifica- tionfordoingit. I t isoftenthoughtevennowthat ifan eventcanberegardedas"inevitable"thatIsajustification forbringing itabout. I f Iseeamotorcarrollingtowards thevergeofaprecipice, Imayjudgethat it istoolateto stopitandthatacatastropheisinevitable,butthatdoes notmakeitmydutytopushit over.This isthe"wave ofthefuture"argumentsopopularafewyearsago. Thepoint iselementary,butanybodyacquaintedwith Marxistliteraturewillagreethat itneedstobemade. I t isarguedinanumberofrecentMarxistbooksthatanyone whoacceptstheMarxiananalysis,whichclaimstoshow thatsocialismistheinevitablenextstageinsocialevolu- tion, isobligatedtoworkpracticalyfor it. ThusJ.D. Bernalwrites " . . . theunderstanderofMarxiandialectic mustneedstakehisplace in thestrugglefor theproletarianrevolution."(AspectsofDialecticalMaterialism, p.120) . . . Butamanwhojudgedthatsocialismisinevitablebut willbebadwouldbeundernoobligationto try tobring itabout. I t isonly if socialismisgoodthat it isone's dutytodoso,and it isone'sdutybecausesocialismis goodandfornootherreason. I t maybeinevitable,or probable,or justroundthecorner,orpredictedbyan interestingtheoreticalargument,orhaveanyothernatural- i.cticcharacter:alltheseareirrelevant.Theonlycharacteristicwhichcanmakeitmydutytoworkfor it is its goodness(morecorrectly itsbeternessthananyalternativMea). rxismmustthereforehaveatheoryofwhatisgood faieg.caUdmatemeneorexplainthesetermsand showthatconsistentwiththisexplanationsocialismisgood, alogicalgapremainsinthetheory. I donotmeanthat fillingthegapisnecessarilydifficult:merelythat it is logicalynecessary. ThusMarxismiscaughtinadilemma:so faras it is materialism, it hasnodistinctiveethicaltheory,whileso farasit isa"practical"philosophy, it imperativelyrequires suchatheory.Thedifficultycouldbemet,thoughatthe priceofthetheoreticalunitywhichMarxistslike,byjust adoptingsomeethicaltheory.But infactthesituationis morecomplicatedthanthis. Marxistshavenotbeencontenttodeveloptheirphilosophyinthepiecemealfashionofotherfolowersoftheem- piricaltradition.Theyhavebelievedthemselvestopossess acomprehensivetheoryof theuniverseandhaveconse- quentlybeentemptedtotakeupsomethingliketheatitude oftherationalists,theconstructivephilosophers,whocan- notleaveanyaspectofexperienceoutof thepurviewof theirsystem.Thustheyhavebeentemptedtogiveethics aplaceinthesystem, i.e.toexhibitethicsasalogical implicationof it. But if thesystemismaterialismthis cannotbedone,sincematerialismhasnopositiveethical implications.AccordinglytheyhavecommitedwhatImay cal aHegeliandeviation;whilebelievingthemselvesmaterialiststheyhavesmuggledinHegelianideaswhichdo haveethicalimplications,andhavetakenthesetobethe ethicaltheoryofMarxism. AHegelianDeviation TheethicaltheoryofHegelisapeculiarone.Hemakes ethicsaspecialsectionofhisgreatstructure,justasnaturalisticauthorsdo,thoughnotquite inthesameway. Forhimethicsisanecessarypartorphaseofthecosmic developmentwhichhistheoryexpounds.Man'sdutiesto thefamily,societyandthestate,moralityandtheconscience,allhavetheir logicallydeterminedplacesinthe scheme.But inanothersensethewholesystemisethical. ThedialecticalmovementfromBeingthroughall thecate- goriestotheAbsoluteIdeais aprogress:theAbsolute Ideaisabsolutelygood.Heconceivesoftheevolutionof natureandthehistoryofhumanityalsoasaprogressin time,apassagefromworsetobetter. Thesearetwoverydiferentethicalconceptions,andin factthereis inHegelacertainoppositionbetweenthem. Inthelight of thecosmicprocessheatacheslittle importancetothepreceptshelaysdowninthesectionsde- votedtothesubject. I t iscertainlyman'sdutytoobey thelawsofthecosmos,but subspecieaeternitatis itdoes notmattermuchwhatamandoes.Even if hesins, i.e. obeyshisownlawsinstead,thatalsoservesthepurpose ofthecosmicdialectic,andprogressgoesontowardsthe inevitablegoal,not inspiteof butbecauseof hissin. Hegelsometimesshowsoutrirzhtcontempt formorality. Heisespecialyslightinginhisremarksonsubjectivemor- ality,rightmotivesandtheindividualconscience.Hegives rightmotivesnogreatervaluethantrueopinions.Social utility is forhimabettercriterion. In facthehardly considersmoralityaproblemfortheindividualatall.As MeTaggartsays,"heshowseverywhereastronginclination totreatethicalproblemsasmatersformankind,andnot forthisorthatman."(StudiesintheHegelianCosmology, p.169)
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