OCTOBER,1946 individualaimsatdevelopingnewrevolutionarymeans,but becausesucharethepitfalsofsubjectivisminfactonlypreparesadjustmenttothementalityoftheatomicage.Inthat age,thecitizenshouldbyallmeansbekeptfromconcern overthelargepoliticalissues;theever-presentdangerofa creativecontactbetweentherebelliousintellectualandthe massesmustbeavoidedatallcost.Concernformoralityand justice,aslongasitremainsaprivateconcern,maybeconsideredaninofensivehobby.Theremaywelexistexemplary modelcoloniescultivatingsimplelivingrightnexttothe BombLaboratories.Thosewhowieldpowerknowwel that theirsocietycannotbeunhingedbysomeindividuallever. Theradicalintelectualcanovercomehisestrangementfrom thissocietyonlyifhesucceedsinassociatinghisindividual feelingofalienationwiththeaspirationsoftheclasswhichas awholeisalienatedfromthissociety.Therearenoshortcuts onthisroad. Theoriesthatarenotsuitedtouncovertheessentialcore ofthealienationofmanandthustotranscendrealityservea verydefinitepurposeintheculturalsuperstructure:theyfurnishtheideologieswhosefunctionitistodivertman'satten- tionfromhisrealmiserableexistence.Indeeditcanonlybein theinterestoftherulersthatmanshouldnotcomprehendthe socialintricacieswhichmakeforhismisery,butratherbeimbuedwiththeilusionofhisabsoluteindividualvalueinorder toreconcilehisindividualinnerhappinesswiththegeneral misery. 2.RevoltAgainstDeterminationandHistory DwightMacdonaldclotheshisrevoltagainstpresentreali- tiesinanatackagainstMarxwhomheaccusesofworshipping thedeity"History,"obliviousofhumanvalues.Thisisthe Marxwhowrote:"Historydoesnotusemanasaninstrument tofulfillitsownpurposes,asif itwereapersonapart.History isnothingelsethantheactivityofmanpursuinghisown aims."ButtheatackaimsnotatMarxalone;itrejectsall thosewhohaveatemptedtouncoverthehistoriclimitations ofhumanactionandpurportstoloosenallthebondsthattie individualactiontothesocietalframework.* Torecognizethatman'sconductislimitedbyhistoricaly determinedcircumstancesisbynomeansanabdicationonbehalfofa"higherforce"history.Tosaythatman'sactingis limitedisnottosaythatitisimpossibleoruseless.Onthecontrary:suchlimitationscouldnotbeconsideredaproblem,and 3'AreproachagainstMarxwhichconstantlyappearsintheNewRoad seriesisthathealegedlyassumedanautomatic"progress,"quiteindependent fromtheactionofmen.Whileitistruethatlatter-daymarxists,especialy oftheschoolofKautsky,havetendedtostressanautomaticdevelopment, whileEngelsandevenMarxmightoccasionaly,intheheatofthebattle, havebeenguiltyofawkwardformulationsinthisrespect,thethought, nevertheless,isalientoMarx'sgeneralconception.Howcanitbeotherwise inasystemthatmakesactionandconsciousnessthecornerstonesofthe wholetheoreticalconstruction?Marx,followinginthisrespectthebest Germanidealistictradition,seesthecentralandrevolutionaryeventinthe actofbecomingconsciousofinherentpotentialities.ForMarx,agrouping ofmenholdingthesameplaceintheprocessofproductionbecomesaclass onlyonceitsmembers—becauseoftheircommunityofinterests—have gainedinsightintothesignificanceoftheirpositionandtheirrole.Onlyif theworkingclassbecomesconsciousofitsparticularsituationandplacein societycanitsetouttoutilizethepotentialitiesforfreedomthatlieembodiedinitssituation.Thusmeretechnologicalprogress—certain"marx- ists"notwithstanding—neverhasbeenMarx'scriterioninjudginganevent. Progresswasacknowledgedtoexistonlytotheextentthatitmeantanin- creaseofawarenessandastepawayfrompassivedetermination.Freedom forMarxwastheconsciousdeterminationofmenovertheirdestiny.Prog- resisesteptoward_therealmoffreedomawayfromthereignofnecessity. BibliotecaGinoBianco 325 hencewouldnotbestudied,withouttheunderlyingdesireto activelyinterfereinhistory.Thequestionwhethertheindividualdetermineshistoryorhistorytheindividualisanon- sensicalquestionbecauseitcannotbeanswered,forhistoryis notapersonapartandmandoesnotexistoutsideofhistory. Thereisadynamicrelationshipbetweenboth:maninterferes inhistoricallygivenconditionsthebettertomasterhisen- vironment,thebettertoemancipatehimselffromtheblind lawsofnature.Therebyhemakeshistory:hecreatesnewcon- ditionswhichwillinturndeterminefutureinterferences.But wehavenotyetbeenshownhowhecanconsciouslyinterfere tochangehisestatewithoutthebenefitofaccumulatedexperienceandknowledge.Wheredoesoneseektosecurethe vehicleforafundamentaloverturnofsocietyifnotinthe appropriationofallpasthumanexperience? "Thosewhocannotrememberhistory,"saysSantayana,"are boundtorepeatit."AmongMarx'smainachievementsisex- actlywhatIwouldcalhisnegativescience,i.e.,theknowledge ofwhatmancannotdo.Thisnegativesciencebasedonhistory indeedformsapartofman'spositiveemancipation;forhecan thenavoidmisdirectinghisenergiesandhopesintoasphere wherefulfilmentisunattainable. Ifhumanhistorynolongerisseenasacontinuumbut ratherasanaccumulationofaccidentalevents,ifnohistoric lawscaneverbeestablished,theneverythingispossible."Free wilreignssupreme,unhamperedbytheboundariesandrestraintsofhistoricrealities.Oncetheselimitingforcesare rejecteditbecomeseasyat leastinthoughttopositany andeverything. If thetestofrationalconfrontationwith realitiesisdiscarded,then"freewill"canindeedbeletloose. Butthenalsoendsanypossibilityofrationalintercourse.In thismysticalandirrationalsphere,relativismisuniversal. Thuswouldbeachievedpreciselythecontraryofwhatwas intended:wherethesettingofbindingvalueswasaimedat, relativismissupreme.Thenthereareonlytwopossibilities: eitherfreewillbecomesapersonalinneraffairandthereremainsonlytheturninginwardofthemysticbydefinition inaccessibletothecanonsofevidencewhoconsciouslyeschewsconflictwiththeoutsideworld;orfreewillisturnedto actionsupposedlyunhampered,inwhichcasetheworldisto besteeredandmanipulatedatwillandthereremainsulti- matelyonlythefascistreferencetothealpowerofthedeed. ThenactionalonecancuttheGordianknotofanexistence thatremainsimmunetotheapproachofreason. Whiletherationalismofabygoneagesoughtallsolutions inthesphereoflawandunderstanding,themodernnihilistic appealto"freewill"infactreliesoncontingencyandabdi- catestheclaimsofreason.Itseeksfreedomintheleastcontroledareaofthehumanpsyche--will,instinct,subconscious andthusequatesfreedomwithirresponsibility.Thistheory, ifthoughtouttoitslogicalconclusions,wouldpronouncethe insanethefreestofallmen.Freedom,however,makessense onlyifouractsarepartcifsomedeterminedandordereduni- verse;theycannotreposeonindeterminacythiswouldbe anabsurdityeasytowritedownbutalmostimpossibletocon- ceive.Humandignityisachievedinactivedetermination,i.e., intheawarenessofthepossibilitiesandconsequencesofone's actions,andnotinthemechanicalypassivedeterminationby natural"drives. Theovercomingoftheestrangementbetweenmanandthe socialstructurewhichhehascreatedinthecourseofhishis- tory,ofthisdominationofthingsovermenwhichMarxdeCf
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