October,1946 TheRussianCulturePurge,byDwightMacdonald 297 314 GermanExperienceThreeDocuments The SomeNotesonSovietScience,byGeorgMann 303 FREEANDEQUAL Counter-Atack,by D.M. 319 COMMENT 305 321 PERIODICALS,byTheodoreDryden 309 NEWROADS:Discussion LONDON11.1t.tet TheKarachiMutinies,byMorroeBerger 312 1.Diggingat theRoots,orStrikingat theBranches? byLouisClair 323 Silone'sResignation,byGeorgeWoodcock 313 329 2.The13thDisciple,by IrvingHowe 35, TheRussianCulturePurge THE currentpurgeofartsandlettersinRussiareveals, evenmoreprofoundlythantheaggressivecharacterof Russainforeignpolicy,that theStalinregimeproposesto alterthepresentinternationalbalanceofpowerin itsfavor, andthat it ispreparingfortheultimateprobableoutcomeof thisatempt:awarwiththeWesternpowers.Thenoveland disturbingfeatureofthispurge,asagainstpreviousones,is theemphassi putonabreakwithWesternculture.Themost prominentthemes—andanyonewhohasfolowedtheSoviet press,withitsritualisticrepetitionsofformulae,knowhow prominentathemecanbecome--aretheviciousnessandvul- garityofWesterncultureandtheimmensesuperiorityof Sovietculture.Thereisaquitedeliberateatempttosnap whateverfrail linksremainbetweenSovietandWesternculture,todestroyanyfeelingofliking,respectorevencommon humanityonthepartoftheRussianpeopleforthepeoples oftheWest. Theword"alien," forexample,occursfrequently.Marx usedtheterm"alienated"tomean"cut off fromhuman values."TheSovietbureaucracy,however,identifytheRus- sianpeoplewithhumanity,andapplytheadjective"alien" towhateverisnotRussian.Inasense,theyareright:atleast, Russai underStalinhasindeedbecomealientothevaluesof Westerncivilization.Aqualitativedifference,disturbingin itsimplications,doesseemtohavedevelopedinthelast fifteenyearsbetweenRussiancultureandourown.Suchprin- ciplesasfreedom,justice,truth,mercy,suchnotionsasthe RightsofManorourown"life, libertyandthepursuitof happiness,"acertainrespectfortheindependenceoftheindividual,evenof theartistthesestillhavesomecurrency intheWestandretainsomeforceformostmen.Butthey areapparentlybynowtotalylackinginRussianculture-so BibliotecaGinoBianco farasit findsexpressionaccessibletoobserversoutsidethe countrywhichhasbecomedebasedtoapointmorebarbaric,irrationalandpsychopathicthantheworstHolywood canshowus.Thisisanextremestatement.I think it isjustifiedbythematerialpresentedinthisarticle. BureaucraticComedy Ones' firstreaction,asa"Westerner,"isthatthecultural purgeisjustfunny.Oneofthecharacteristicsofbureaucracy ingeneralandSovietideologyinparticularishumorlessness. Here,bytheway,maybeamajorweaknessofStalinism; somewel-placedridiculemightbethemostefectiveweapon ofopposition,thetalentsofWItaireratherthanthoseof Leninmaybewhatisneededtoshakethefoundationsofthat greatgrimpompousstructure. Asenseofhumoris,essentialy,asenseofproportion. Bergsondefinesthecomicas"somethingmechanicalencrustedontheliving"andadds:"Completeautomatismis onlyreachedintheoficialwhoperformshisdutylikeamere machni e,oragainintheunconsciousnessthatmarksanad- ministrativeregulationworkingwithinexorablefatalityand setingitselfupforalawofnature."Bureaucracyalways tendstosetupitself (i.e., itswillandtheregulationsand "directives"thatexpressit) foralawofnature,totreatthe realworldasthoughitwerestructuredinsuchawayasto becompletelyamenabletomanipulationby itsauthority.* Therealworld,however,isnotstructuredthatway.And *OnereasonforthefantasticbehavioroftheRussiandelegatesintheU.N. andatParisisthattheonlywaytheyknowofthinkingandactingisin termsofbureaucraticmanipulation;butthiswon'tworkwithpersonsover whomtheyhavenoauthority.
298 polities whenthebureaucrattriestotreatitso,theresultisalways coSmo ic i . ntheculturalpurgewefindalmostunbelievable things.Ajazzbandisreprovedforthe"ideologicalscanti- ness"ofitsjive. . . RedSport remindsitsreadersthatathletic eventsareheldprimarily"forthegloryoftheState". . .The CentralCommiteeoftheAll-UnionCommunistPartyorders aleditorsto"carryonadecisivestruggleagainstapolitical andunideologicaltheatricalcriticism"andtorequiretheir reviewerstoemployonly"theprinciplesofBolshevikcriti- cism".. . Pravda denounceschildren'smagazinesforprinting nonsensicalfairytales,whichtaketheyouthfulreaderout oftherealmofrealityordistortthetruthabouttheSoviet Union"andrecommendsthattheypaymoreattentionto "theproblemsoflifeandstruggleinoursocialistfatherland". . .TheSherlockHolmesstoriesareexcoriatedby TheMoscowEveningNews becausethey"poisontheminds ofreaders"witha"criminalromanticism"whichdiverts themfromtheproblemsofthefive-yearplan. Itisallveryfunny,unlessoneconsidersitfromthestand- pointofonewholivesintheSovietUnion,orofonewho livesinaworldinwhichtheSovietUnionisagreatpower. Thenitbecomesratherfrightening. ThreeDogmasinSearchofanArtist Ifthepurgemustbetakenseriously,itisnotbecauseit involvesthefateofverymuchgoodart.Whenthefirstgreat "culturalofensive"tookplaceafterStalincameintopower in1928, theobjectsofattackwerepainters,architects,musicians,poetsandmoviedirectorswhohadmadetheRussiaof thetwentiesoneofthegreatcentersofcreativeexperimentation.Somecommitedsuicide,mostcapitulatedandtriedto debasetheirworktotherequiredlevel;bythetimethesecond artpurgecamealong,justbeforetheMoscowTrials,very littlewasleftofSovietartandthemastersofthetwenties werebeatenanddemoralizedmen,justastheOldBolsheviks whowerefinallydisposedofbytheMoscowTrialswere physicalytheindividualswhohadmadethe1917revolution butspiritualywereshadow-men,brokenbyyearsofpersecutionand,evenworse,coruptedbyrepeatedcapitulations. Ifthiswastrueevenin1936, onemayimaginethestate oftheartsinRussiatoday,aftertenmoreyearsofStalinism. No,itisnotbecauseanyliving,creativetendenciesinSoviet artarebeingstifledtheyexpiredmanyyearsagothatone musttakeseriouslythisnewpurge.It isundertheheading ofpolitics,notart,thatitistobeconsidered. Thepurgeisbeingconductedtoimpressonthecultural workersofRussia,threedogmas,whichmaybesummedup asfolows: DOGMAI.:ARTISAPOLITICALINSTRUMENT. Theonlyjustification,orevenmeaning,ofaworkofart liesintheextenttowhichitserves"theinterestsofthepeo- ple,"whicharefranklyidentifiedwiththepoliciesofthose incontroloftheState. DOGMAII.:ARTISADUTY,NOTADELIGHT. Thisistruefortheartist,whomustbeResponsible,Constructive,Optimistic,Healthy-Minded,andwhomustin everynote,line,orbrush-strokeconcernhimselfwiththe ProblemsoftheStruggleforSocialismandtheFulfillment oftheStalinFiveYearPlan.It isalsotruefortheaudience, whichistobeedifiedratherthaneithermovedorenterCC DOGMAIII.:WESTERNCULTUREISALIENTO ANDINFERIORTOSOVIETCULTURE.SinceWestern cultureisdecadent,"ideal-less,"shalow,vulgarandpro- vincial,itmustbemercilesslycriticisedandrejectedasan influence.Sovietculture,ontheotherhand,isthemostpro- found,creative,andadvancedintheworld.* Theformulationoftheabovedogmasisnotexaggerated forsatiricalpurposes;itisanaccuratesummaryofwhathas bensaidoverandoveragainintheSovietpressoflate months.Thosewhoarescepticalareinvitedtoreadthefollowingnarrativeofthepurge,whichhasbeendrawnmostly fromMoscowdispatchestothe N.Y.Times. Theonething tobealwaysrememberedaboutthepolicyofthepresent mastersofRussiaisthattherearenoextremesofbarbarism andirrationality,literalynone,fromwhichitdrawsback. "Somethingmechanicalencrustedontheliving." Thunderclouds Thefirstmuteringoftheapproachingstormwasthean- nouncement,on•May21,ofafive-yearplanformovieproduction.Theoficialyapprovedlistofthemesisworthgiving infull: I.TheadvantagesoftheSovietsystemovercapitalism. 2.TheroleoftheCommunistParty. 3.Solidarityandfriendshipofthemanynationalitiescom- posingtheSovietUnion. 4.Thepeople'svigilance,patriotismanddutiestothe State. 5.Commemorationofoutstandingwarheroesand heroines. 6.TheSovietwayoflife. 7.Thefamily. 8.Motherheroines(motherswhohavetenchildren). 9.Childrenandyouth. 10.ProblemsfacingtheSovietUnion. *Theoreticaly,thatis.ForsincetheSovietpoliticalsystemissuperiorto alothersystems,itmustfollowthattheobjectivebasisforanequaly superiorcultureexists.Thereis,however,anunfortunatecontradictionbe- tweenthisobjectivebasisandthesubjectiveachievementsofcontemporary Sovietart.TheCentralCommiteemakesnosecretofitsbeliefthatthe actual—asagainstthetheoretical—stateofSovietartis,nottoputtoo fineapointonit,lousy.Thisstateofaffairsisduepartlytotheslackness andrecalcitranceoftheartists,partlytothecorruptinginfluenceofprovincialWesternart.TheCentralCommitteehasissuedcleardirectivesfor boththeseevilstobecorrectedatonce. polities VOLUME3,No.9(WholeNo.32)OCTOBER,1946 Editor:DwightMacdonald BusinessManagers:BerthaGruner,NancyMacdonald POLITICSispublishedmonthlyat45AstorPlace, NewYork3, N. Y., byPoliticsPublishingCo.Telephone:GRamercy3-1512. Subscription$3.50foroneyear,$6fortwoyears.Add 30cayearforCanada,50eayearforallotherforeign countries.Singlecopy:35c.Mostbackissuesarestill avSapilaebc l i eal . rateforservicemenandC.O.'sanywhere:$2.50 aySe ua br. scribersNote: It takesus10daystochangeyour address.Pleaseletushavechangesofaddresspromptly. CopyrightOctober,1946,byPoliticsPublishingCo.Enteredassecond-classmatterMarch16,1944,atthepost- oficeatNewYork,undertheActofMarch3,1879. e 79 BÉlZiebetd-41.01ebtânco
OCTOBER,1946 299 11.Documentariesofthefive-yearplan. 12.Industry,agricultureandlife inthesixteenSoviet republics. 13.Popularizationofachievementsinscience,engineering andtechnicalprogress. Thislistisasmucha"resignationfromtheworld"aswas Stalin'sFebruaryspeech.Itisalsoaresignationfromart,and evenfromentertainment.Apeoplewhowouldwilinglysit throughfiveyearsofmoviesontheabovethemesarenota peoplelikeourselvesorlikeanyotherpeopleknowntohistory.One'shopeisthattheRussians,iftheydosit,willat leastnotsitwilingly. Thepurgeopensinthefieldofartaboutthesametimeas inindustry.OnJuly7 it isannouncedthatthejust-completedsecondpartofEisenstein'snewfilmtrilogy, Ivanthe Terrible, wouldnotbereleased.(TheEisensteincaseisconsideredindetaillateron.)Aweeklaterthepurgebeginsto broadenoutandgathermomentum. CultureandLife, the officialorganofthePropagandaandAgitationBoardofthe CentralCommitteeoftheAll-UnionCommunistPartyas Iwassaying, CultureandLife initsJuly17issueprintsa longdenunciationoftendenciesinopera,theatre,painting, filmsandarchitecture.Thearticletakesadimviewofany furtherstagingofforeignplaysbecausetheydistractaudiencesfrom"thefundamentalproblemsofSovietreality"and becausetheyare"soakedthroughandthroughwithanideologyalientoSovietSociety." TheLightningStrikes OnAugust14,theCentralCommiteeofthepartymeets toreview"thestateoftheideologicalfront,"whichitfinds inverybadshape.Theseriousnesswithwhichthesematters areviewedinRussiaisshownbytheCommitee'sentrusting theinitiationofthegrandpurgeinarttothesecondmost importantbureaucratinRussia:Col.-Gen.AndreiZhdanov, ChairmanoftheSovietUnionandSecretaryoftheparty's CentralCommitee. Aweeklater,onAugust21,thelightningstrikes. TheideologicalfrontsemstohavebeenweakestinLeningrad,perhapsbecauseLeningradhasalwaysbeenmore"West- ern"initsoutlookthantheothergreatcities,perhapsbecauseitsuferedparticularlyduringthewar,whichforced thebureaucracytoslackentheirreinsalittle.OnAugust21, therefore,thewritersofLeningradholdalengthymeeting presidedoverbythewel-knownliteraryman,Col.-Gen. Zhdanov,whoexpoundshistheoryofartinanhour-long lecture.HereprovestheLeningradwritersforhavingstrayed into"nonpoliticalchannels,deprivedofideologyandprin- ciples"andforhaving"lostthesenseofresponsibilityto theirpeople,Stateandparty."Hismainpositivepointsare: (a)literatureisaduty;(b)thisdutyconsistsinrepeling "thehideousslandersandatacksagainstourSovietculture" andlaunchinghideousslandersandatacksagainstWestern culture(notputquitethatway);and(c),whichisworth italicsandanewparagraph: "Iffeudalismand,lateron,thebourgeoisieintheperiodof itsflourishing,couldcreateartandliteratureassertingthe newsystems.. .thensurelyournewsocialistsystem,embody- ingallthatisbestinthehistoryofhumancivilizationand culture,iscapableofcreatingthemostadvancedliterature, whichwillleavefarbehindthebestcreationsofoldentimes." (Thefactthatnotonlyhassuchaliteraturenotbeencre- echhe6gdgodifirotsThsikey,butthatsinceStalin'saccessiontopower in 1929Sovietarthassteadilydegenerated inallfieldsthissuggeststoZhdanov'sbureaucraticmind notthathispremisemaybefaultyastothenatureof"our newsocialistsystem"butsimplythatpurges,plans,anddirectivesareurgentlyneeded.Norisheworriedbythefactthat twelveyearsagothebureaucracywaspointingoutprecisely thesame"contradiction."In MoscowNews ofJune 9, 1934, forexample,weread:"Thebrightesthopesofallmankind arebeingfulfiled in theSovietUnion,wherealllifeisbased onthedoctrineofsocialism.Artisstilllaggingbehindthe practiceoftriumphantsocialism.Itseesthefutureverydim- ly."Purges,plans,directiveswereshowereddownonthe artsthen,withtheresultsZhdanovseestoday.Thisdrying upofallthespringsofartisticcreationisthesurestindicationoftherealqualityoftheSovietsocialsystem.) ThesecontributionsofCol.-Gen.Zhdanovtoesthetic theoryinstantlyconvincetheassembledliterateursofLeningrad,whounanimouslypassanumberofinterminablereso- lutionsrestatingeachofthemainpointsofhislecture,admitingtheirownlackofcultureandtaste,pledgingthem- selvestoa"mercilessfightagainstideal-lessness,vulgarity, politicalaloofnessandso-caled'pureart,'"andpromising tosetaboutatoncecreatinginnumerablepoems,plays,novels andessayswhichwouldbe"highqualityartisticwork"and wouldexpress"themajestyofourvictory,thepathosofrehabilitationandSocialistconstruction,andtheheroicdeeds oftheSovietpeopleinfulfillingandover-fulfilingthenew Stalinfiveyearplan." ButtheCentralCommiteeistakingnochances;evenbe- foreZhdanovmountsthelectureplatformtheLeningrad literaryworldhasbeenpurged.OnAugust20,thedaybe- forehislecture, CultureandLife publishesanoficialarticle (whichisreprintednextdayonthefrontpageof Pravda) announcingthattheliterarymagazine, Leningrad, hasbeen suspended,andthataneweditorhasbeenappointedforthe otherleadingLeningradliteraryorgan, Zvezda; tomake everythingdoublysure,thisneweditoristhevice-chairman oftheCentralCommitee'spropagandadepartment.The formereditorsofbothmagazinesarecastigatedforhaving publishedtheworkoftwowel-knownwriters:thesatirist, Zostchenko,andtheromanticpoet,AnnaAkhmatova.The former'sworkis"alientoSovietliterature"and"calculated todisorientouryouthandpoisontheirminds.Hepaintsthe Sovietorderandpeopleinadistortedform,libelouslydescribingtheSovietpeopleasprimitive,uncultured,foolishpeople withprovincialtastesandmorals.Zostchenko'sviciously hooligandescriptionofouractuallifeisaccompaniedby anti-Sovietattacks."AsforMissAkhmatova:sheis"atypicalrepresentativeofempty,ideal-lesspoetry,alientoour people,"whoseworkis"saturated"withpessimism,decadenceandartforart'ssake;it isfurthermoreharmfulto Sovietyouthandit"cultivatesaspiritofworshipofWestern bourgeoisculturealientotheSovietpeople."* *Thisrepudiationofbothrealismandart forart'ssakesuggeststhat whatthebureaucratsarerealyafteristhekindofartthatadornsour post-oficesandstatecapitols:virilemen,bosomywomen,drapedinclassic robesandbathedingoldenlight,representingallsortsofseriousand worthyideaswithborethehelloutofanyonewhoseeyeaccidentaly lightsonthem.ThisinturnsuggeststhattheRussiansmustbeavery patientpeople.Alsothat it isimpossiblefor abackwardcountrylike RussiatobreakwithWesternculture;allthebureaucratscandoisto seethattheirartworkersfolowthemostprimitiveformsofthatculture.
30 p o l i t i e s Asfortheeditors:theyforgottheymustbeguided"by whatisthevitalfoundationoftheSovietsystem:itspoliticalpolicy."Theyalsoforgotthatliterature"canhaveno otherinterestsoutsideofthoseofthepeopleandtheState. ThetaskofSovietliteratureconsistsinhelpingtheStateto properlyeducateyouth. . ."(TheidentificationofthepeopleandtheState,bytheway,maybesignificant,asisthe useof"State"aloneinthenextsentence.HithertotheStalin regimehasbeenembarrassedbythefailureoftheStateto witherawayasperMarxiandoctrine;ithasbeensilentor apologeticonthesubject;nowitseemstobelosingthis shyness.) DrangNachWesten Asthepurgedevelops,theanti-foreignthemebecomes ominouslylouder.OnSeptember1,theCentralCommitee prohibitsanyfurtherexhibitionofplaysbyMaugham,Pinero, Kaufmanandothers,rathernaivelypointingoutthatsuch playshavedrivenSovietplaysoffthestage,andthatonly threeofthetwentyplaystheninthecurrentreportoryof theMoscowArtTheatredealtwithcontemporarylifein Russia.Presentingforeignplaysiscaled"anatempttopoisontheconscienceoftheSovietpeoplebyaconceptionhostile toSovietsociety,toreawakensurvivalsofcapitalismintheir mindsandintheireverydaylife."(Thegrimnessofpresent- dayRussianlifemustbeconsiderableif ittakesapolice ordertogetthetheatretoputonplaysdealingwithit,and ifplaysshowinglifeinEuropeandAmericamustbebanned lesttheyawakendesiresforcapitalismaquarter-century aftertherevolution.) Thenextday, Pravda addssomeadvice:"Playsmustre- flectthelifeofSovietsocietyinitsconstantmovementforward,contributingbyallmeanstothedevelopmentofthe bestsidesofthecharacteroftheSovietman,whichshowed themselveswithspecialstrengthintheGreatPatrioticWar." (Foranindexofthisspecialstrength,seedocumentsIIand III in"TheGermanExperience,"elsewhereinthisissue.) OnSeptember8,Tikhonov,presidentoftheUnionof SovietWriters,isdismissedfromhispost,andZostchenko andAkhmatovaareexpeledfromtheUnion.Henceforth onlywritersmaybelongtotheUnionwho"standonaplat- formofSovietpowerandparticipateinsocialistconstruction"—asstatedinparagraph2oftheUnion'scharter.The UnionalsodenouncesBorisPasternack'spoetryas"apolitical andideal-less,isolatedfromthemassesofthepeople." OnSeptember22,thecolegiumoftheMinistryofCinematography(suchtitles,likecannibalswearingtophats,testify tothebarbariclevelofpresentSovietculture)dismissesthe editorof CinemaArts fromhispost,especialycriticisinghis publishingof"Eisenstein'sprofoundlyeroneousformalist articlethatinessenceadvocatedartforart'ssake."(Thusthe anti-formalistwitch-hunt,whichwasbeingprosecutedintenselyintheearlythirties,isstillgoingonwhichisquitea tributetothevitalityofformalism,atermbywhichisunderstoodinRussiatheuseofanyestheticdevicesinproducing worksof art.) lzvestia's editorialforthesameday,addressedtowriters andcinemaworkers,outdoesallpreviouseforts: "Ourwriters'fightingtaskistogiveacrushingrepulseto slanderersatackingSovietcultureandsocialismandatthe sametimecastigatethecorruptedandcorruptivecultureof bourgeoissociety . .Ourculturestandsonanimmeasurably BibliotecauinoBianco higherlevelthanbourgeoisculture. . .Whatcanthebest representativesofSovietsociety,thecreatorsofitsculture, learnfromthefashionable'workers'ofthemodernWestand ofAmerica--whoexpressmerelythemoraldisintegrationand rotingofthecapitalistsystem?Isitnotclearthatourcul- turehastherightnottoactasapupilandimitatorbut,on thecontrary,toteachothersthegeneralhumanmorals?" (ForfurthernewsoftheRussiansasteachersofhuman morals,seedocumentsIIandIIIof"TheGermanExperience," elsewhereinthisissue.) Noteventhemostworld-famousoflivingRussianartists whetherdeservedlysoseemstobeinquestionnamely, Shostakovitch,escapesthehunt.Histurncomesas itdid oncebefore,in1936,whenStalincomplainedthatworkers couldn'twhistlehistunesonthewaytowork—onOctober1, intheofficial CultureandLife. HisnewNinthSymphonyis heldtoshowthatthecomposer"hasnotovercomeinhimself theironicalsceptic,"thathelacks"warmideologicalconviction"andthathehasbeeninfluencedbyStravinsky,"an artistwithoutafatherland,withoutconfidenceintheleadershipofhighidealsandwithoutdeepethicalprinciples."Shos- takovitch'sNinthisdescribedas"arespite. . .atemporary forgetingofbigseriousproblemsforaplayfulandfanciful trifle"andheissternlyaskedwhetherthisisanytimefor"a famousartisttotakeavacation,arestfrommodernprob- lems"inordertoimitatetheancientclassicswiththeir"joyfulrhythms."(Thebureaucraticcriticneveraskshimself,of course, why Sovietartistswantarespite,avacation,forgetfulness,joyandplay;inhisnaivedenunciation,thecritic unconsciouslyrevealstheantagonismbetweenthecreative temperamentandthedrudgery["bigseriousproblems"]the Statebureaucracywouldimposeonit.) TheMoscowradioonOctober2accusesthenovelistsof Americaofan"escapist"atitudeduringthewar,contrasting withthemtheSovietwriterswho"spentyearsatthefront helpingtodefeattheenemywithpenandsometimesgunin hand."Also,wartimeAmericannovelswereoflowquality (quitetrue),whilewartimeRussiannovelsweremarkedby "highmoralqualityandprofoundandimportantideas."* TheEisensteinTragedy(Continued) Thereseemstobeanaturalhostility,incompatiblewith thebestwillonbothides,betweenmoderntotalitarianism andartisticcreation.Capitalismpervertsartormakesits practicemoredifficult,buttotalitarianismsimplyliquidates it.Inapredominantlyprivate-capitalistsocietylikeourown, therearecranniainwhichtheartistandintelectualcan survive,aswellasconflictingforcesofwhichhecantake advantage.Frick,thesteelmaster,usedtositonaRenaissance throneunderneathaRembrandtreadingthe SaturdayEve- ningPost, butthemiddleclassintelectuals,foralltheireconomicimpotencevis-a-visFrick,wereabletoprovidean '1'NoteventheshamelessIlyaEhrenburgdaredmakesuchaclaimonhis recentvisithere:"Wedidn'thavetimetocreateliterature;wehadto defendit."(HissecretaryaddedthatEhrenburghadwritten"about3,000" articlesduringthewar,whichisasolemnthoughtindeed.)Ehrenburg alsohadthemisfortunenotonlytopraisePasternack'spoetrybuteven toadducePasternack'shighliterarystandinginRussiaasproofthatartis freethere.ThiswasbeforetheCentralCommiteehadspoken,ofcourse. EhrenburghastenedtoadoptTheNewHermetism,refusinganinvitationtoanintelectualcongressinSwitzerlandlastmonthwithcontemptu- ousremarksaboutbourgeoisfrivolity.Similarly,ProkofiefandShostakovitch,whohadbothacceptedinvitationstoconducttheirworkwiththe BostonSymphonyOrchestra,havecanceledtheirtrip.
OCTOBER,1946 301 audienceforJoyceandJamesandProustandEliot.The"con- tradictionsofcapitalism,"thatbourgeoisanarchyatwhich generationsofMarxistsrailed,nowturnoutinourpresent ghastlyperiodtohavetheiradvantages.Forinthekindof societythathasdevelopedinRussia,therearenocrannies, nocontradictions,noconflictingforces—atleastnoneofa growthsturdyenoughtogive sheltertotheartist.Thereis onlyoneculture,oneconceptionofart,onecriterionof tasteandachievement;andif,assemstobefatallythecase, theonestandardisthatofFrickreadingthe Satevepost (withouttheRembrandt),thenthemostdignifiedwayoutforthe artistisMayakovsky's. ThebestillustrationIknowofthisgeneralizationisthe careerofSergeiEisenstein,inmyopinionandnotonlymine —thegreatestmasterthecinemahasyetproduced. Ihave writenagooddealabouttheearlierphasesofEisenstein's tragiccareer*andanywaythegeneraloutlinesarewell- known.MypointhereisthatEisensteinhasmadeeverypossibleefforttoadapthistalentstotheusesrequiredofthem; henotonlycapitulatedandkeptoncapitulatinginthemost cynicalandshamelessway,butheactivelyatackedthe estheticprinciplesonwhichhisgreatfilmsarefounded(see hisbook, TheFilmSense, publishedoverherein1942)and lenthisprestigetosuchpoliticalmaneuversasthe N. Y. Times ofFebruary19,1940,reported,duringtheNazi- Sovietpact:"SergeiEisenstein,oneofthemostprominent Sovietfilmdirectors,todaylaunchedaSoviet-Germancul- turalcooperationprogramovertheCominternRadioStation. BroadcastingespecialytoGermany,Mr.Eisensteinsaidthat friendlyRussian-Germanrelationsestablishedlastyearformed asolidbasis'forincreasedculturalcooperationbetweenthe twogreatpeoples.'" ThetremendoussignificanceofEisenstein'spost-1929ca- reeristhat,inspiteofallhisefortstoproducethekindof artthebureaucracywanted,hehasbeenunabletodoso.Be- tweenhislastgreatfilm, OldandNew, whichappearedin 1929justastheStalinregimewasconsolidatingitspower, andthepresent,hehasbegunnumerousprojectswhichhave cometonothing,hasdoneafirstdraftofonefilm, Bezhin Meadow, whichwasdestroyedbytheauthoritiesbeforeit waspubliclyexhibited,andhascompletedjusttwofilms: AlexanderNevsky (1938)andthefirstpartofaprojected trilogy, IvantheTerrible (1946). Ihaveseen Nevsky, and itismyjudgementthat it isabadmovie,andforreasons directlyconnectedwiththepoliticsoftheKremlin;itseemed tomeatthetime"astatickindofmasqueorpageant,slowpaced,devoidofanycontentotherthanaposter-likekindof patriotism,andquiteconventionalinitscinematictechnique."Montage,thebasicprincipleofcinema,whichinthe twentiesEisenstein,Pudovkin,DovzenkoandtheotherRussiandirectorstookoverfromD.W.Griffithandmadethe cornerstoneoftheirart,in Nevsky hasdegeneratedtoaHollywoodlevel;thefilmhasbecomeagainsimplyaphoto- graphedstageplay. Ivan soundslikethesamekindofthing, fromtheaccountsof it in Time (April1)and LesTemps Modernes(June). ThereasonswhytheRussianbureaucracyobjectedto montage,whichisanexpressionof"formalist"tendenciesin thecinema,aretoocomplextogointohere;thecuriousare *Seethethree-partstudy,"TheSovietCinema,1930-1938"in Partisan Review forJuly,1938;August-September,1938;andWinter,1939.Also: "TheEisensteinTra_giedy," PsrtisanReview, November-December,1942. BibliotecaGnoBianco WELLDONE,THOUGOOD ANDFAITHFULSERVANT! ASTwinterMichaelIvanovitchKalinindied.Hewasamedio- 4 critywhoformanyyearssuccessfulyfilledthepostof PresidentoftheSovietUnion.Hissuccesswasduetotwoqualities (asidefromhismediocrity):(1)helookedlikeatypicalpeasant, and(2)heknewhowtokeephismouthshut. AccordingtotheJuly2issueof"Trud,"theorganoftheAllUnionCentralCouncilofSovietTradeUnions,theCouncilofMin- istershasdecreedthatthefollowingmeasuresshalbetakento keepgreenthememoryofMichaelIvanovitchKalinin: I.ErectmonumentstoMichaelIvanovitchKalinininMoscow, Leningrad,andKalinin. 2.Changethenamesof (a)KonigsbergtoKaliningrad,andKonigsbergProvinceto KalininProvince; (b)KrasnogvardeiskydistrictofLeningradtoKalinindistrict; (c)KrasnopakhorskydistrictofMoscowProvincetoKalinin distri (cdt; )KolpinskydistrictofTalinntoKalinindistrict. 3.GivethenameofMichaelIvanovitchKalininto (a)theTalinnlocomotiverepairshops(whereKalininworked inexile),whichhenceforthshalbeknownastheMichaelIvan- ovitchKalininTallinnLocomotiveRepairShops; (b)theAltaitractorworksinRubtsovsk,whichhenceforth shalbeknownastheMichaelIvanovitchKalininAltaiTractor Work( sc; )themachineryplantinPodolsk,intheMoscowdistrict, whichhenceforthshalbeknownastheMichaelIvanovitchKalinin PodolskMachineryPlant. 4.GivethenameofMichaelIvanovitchKalininto (a)theHigherMilitaryPedagogicalInstitute,whichhenceforthshalbeknownastheMichaelIvanovitchKalininHigher MilitaryPedagogicalInstitute; (b)theSecondGuardsRifleTamanskyRedBannerDivisionof theOrderofSuvoro-v,whichshalhenceforthbeknownasthe MichaelIvanovitchKalininSecondGuardsRifleTamanskyRed BannerDivisionoftheOrderofSuvorov. 5.Publishin1947-8 (a)thecompleteworksofMichaelIvanovitchKalinin; (b)theauthorizedbiographyofMichaelIvanovitchKalinin; (c)anartisticalbumdepictingthelifeandworkofMichael IvanovitchKalinin. (It isthedutyoftheMarx-Engels-LeninInstitutetoprepare thematerialsandtopublishtheworksofMichaelIvanovich Ka6 li . nC i hn a .) ngethenameofVozdvizhenkaStreetinMoscowtoKalininStreet. 7.Establish40MichaelIvanovitchKalininscholarshipsof500 rubleseach,supplementarytotheexistingones,foroutstanding studentsinthefolowinginstitutions:theLomonosavStateUniversityinMoscow(10);theTimiryazevAgriculturalAcademy(15); theMichaelIvanovitchKalininStatePedagogicalInstituteinKalinin (5);theLeninInstituteofRailroadTransportEngineersinTiflis (4);thePolytechnicalInstituteinTallinn(3); theKazakState University(3). 8.CreateaMichaelIvanovitchKalininMuseuminMoscow,reflectingthelifeandworkofMichaelIvanovitchKalinin. 9.InstructtheExecutiveCommiteesoftheMoscowandLenin- gradMunicipalCouncils,theExecutiveCommiteesoftheMoscow andKalininProvincialCouncils,andtheCouncilofMinistersof theGeorgianandEstonianSovietSocialistRepublicstosetup memorialplaquesonallbuildingsconnectedwiththelifeand workofMichaelIvanovitchKalinin. referredtomyarticlesinPR.Thepointistheydidobject, andEisensteincomplied,butwiththeresultthathecompletedonlytwopoorfilmsinalmosttwentyyears,andthe furtherresultthathehasbeenindifficultieswiththeauthoritiesthroughoutmostoftheperiod.Mostoftheothertalented artistsinRussiahavealsotriedhardtofolowpartydirectives;theiratempthasnotsucceeded,anymorethanhis,in avoidingconstantharassment.Isuggestthatonedifficultyis simplythattheyaremenoftalentthatis,conscious,per-
302 politics ceptive,experimental,mentalyaliveindividualsandso threatenStalin'sbureaucracydespitetheirearnestwishnotto. Anotherdifficultyisthatseriousartists,especiallyinastill primitivecountrylikeRussia,naturallyareinfluencedbythe ideasandtechniquesofmoreadvancedcountries.Thereisa spontaneousinternationalismaboutgoodart.Thecurrent campaignagainst"alien"Westerninfluencesisthemostex- tremebutbynomeansthefirstsuchsince1929.AsInoted in1939:"Itwaspreciselythisinternationalcharacterofthe EisensteincinemathatmostalarmedtheKremlin. If the masesaretoacceptthepresenttotalitariandictatorshipas afullyrealizedsocialistsociety,theymustbecutofffrom contactwithmoreadvancedcultures.Andso,inthelast tenyears,theSovietUnionhasbeenslowlyisolated. . .This campaignisdesignedtoreinforce,nottocombat,thosechar- acteristicdefectsofbackwardcultures:provincialsmugness, theignorantacceptanceof inferior,banalartformsas `healthy'and'normal,'andacorespondingsuspicionofmore advancedforms.Thisiswhat,esthetically,thetheoryof `SocialismInOneCountry,'hasmeant."Thereisanadded motivetoday:toprepareforwaragainsttheWest,anda warinwhichtheSovietUnionwillbealoneexceptfora fewsmallsatelitenations.Inthe"collectivesecurity"period andafterGermanyhadattackedherin1941,Russialooked ontheWesternpowersasalies,potentialandthenactual. Herculturalpolicy,therefore,couldnotreachthedegreeof hermetismit isnowataining.Eisensteinmade Nevsk.y in 1938and Ivan wasprojectedandlargelyfinishedduringthe warperiod.Forallitsfaults,theformerisasophisticated film,andextremely"formalistic"inthestylizationofcostumes,actingandsetingandintheelaboratecompositionof eachindividualshot.It isnotatallthesortofhome-grown provincialfilm—ablendofstodgyrealismandnaivemelo- drama—wegeneralygetfromRussiathesedays.When CultureandLife,therefore,criticisesIvantheTerribleforits "failuretoportraycontemporaryreality"andits"coldand pasoinelshistoricism"andcalsforfewerfilmsaboutliterary andhistoricalfiguresandmoreabout"thesimpleSovietpeoplewhoaretherealcreatorsofhistory,"onecanassumethat evenaSovieteditorwouldnotcriticizeahistoricalfilmfor notdealingwithcontemporarylife,andthatwhatismeant isthatthestylized,ornatetechniqueofthefilmisnowconsidered"formalistic,""decadent"and"Western."It isalso justpossiblethatEisensteintookadvantageofthehistorical pageanttoescapefromthatContemporaryRealitywhichboth Russianartistsandaudiencesseemtowishtoforget.This suggestsinturnanotherspeculation,whichthereisnospace todevelop,namely:whyisit thatthedominantclassesin Americafeedthemasesdreams,romance,"escape"culture whiletheirpeersinRussiaadoptjusttheoppositepolicy, althoughbothhavethesameendin view? WITHTHEMARXICOLOGISTS:PaddedCellDept. Inthesitdownstrikesof1935-7,theAmericanworkingclassdemon- stratedthatitwasstrivingtoraiseitselftothelevelofthetasksimposeduponitbyhistory,thatistosay,tocreateasocialistsociety. Sincethattime, ithasmovedwithgiganticstridesuntiltodayinits mostadvancedsectionsitchallengesthebourgeoisideasofproduc- tion,distributionandexchangeonanationalscaleandbacksup theseconceptionswithamany-milionedstrike.Thisunprecedented radicalizationof agiantworkingclass. . . Norevolutionarytoday candenythepossibilitythattwoyearsfromtodaytheAmerican proletariatcouldcoverthenationwithsoviets. JamesR.Johnson,inthe"Buletin" oftheWorkersParty,Feb.28,1946. BibliotecaGinoBianco OfficeofFactsandFigures Abilionandahalfdolarsisalotofmaney.#Itis,forex- ample,whatthewomenoftheUSAspentlastspringfornew Easterhatsanddresses.It isalso,forexample,$150,000,- 000morethanthetotalUScontributiontoUNRRAforthe year1946. TheNationalUrbanLeaguereportsthatinthecityof NewYorkthereare300Negropainters,260Negrocarpenters,22Negrolicensedelectricians,6Negroplumbers,and 2Negroplasterers.Progressiveswillbepleasedtoknowthat theNewYorkbuildingtradesarealmost100%unionized. TheParisianpaper,LeMonde,ofMarch8last,statesthat captureddocumentsnowinthehandsoftheFrenchauthoritiesrevealthatduringtheoccupation240,000Frenchmen andwomenappliedforGermancitizenship.Noreliablefigures existastohowmanyactivelytookpartintheResistance,but 240,000wouldbeagenerousestimate. rahtheabove,cf.theU.S.Armyestimateofthenumber ofJapanesecitizensimprisonedonpoliticalchargesduringthe war.Thefigureisonemilion(1,000,000). (N. Y.Times Dec.21,1945.) PapershavebeenfiledintheSurrogate'sCourtinPough- keepsie,N.Y.,inconnectionwithtransfertaxesontheestate ofalatelydeceasedlocalcitizen.Hisname:FranklinDelano Roosevelt.Thegrossvaluationofhisestate:$1,821,887. ThevitalstatisticsontheNurenberg"War-Guilt"Trials areasfoloDwasy:sconsumed2 8 4 Wordsspoken5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 Record(no.pages)1 5 , 0 0 0 Originaldocuments3 , 0 0 0 Afidavits 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 Propagandavalue Justicedone OnAugust3,Dr.Galup'sinvestigatorsaskedtheAmerican people:"Whatdoyouthinkwillbethemostimportantproblemfacingthiscountryduringthenextyear?"87%ofthe answersputsomedomesticproblemfirst(inflation,foodshortage,housing,etc.);10%putfirst"maintenanceofpeaceand conductingforeignaffairs";3%putfirsttheatombomb. Theseanswersindicatethat,asthisjournalhasfrequently maintained,Americansarestillaprovincialpeople,inadequate foreitherworldempire,worldgovernmentorinternational socialism. KonigsberginEastPrussiawasfoundedin1255;thelast ninekingsofPrussiawerecrownedthere;itisthe"holycity" ofPrussianjunkerdom.Itspresentname:Kaliningrad. WhenKingGeorgeIIlandedonGreeksoil,returningfrom exile,thepressrecordedforhistoryhisfirstwords.Theywere: "ForthelatterpartofSeptember,youarehavingfineweather, aren'tyou?"
OCTOBER,1946 SomeNotesonSovietScience MOSTofthesciencenewsfrompresentdayRussiaisas wonderfulasPaulDeKruif'smedicalarticles inReader'sDigest, asfamiliartotheAmericanearasaHearstSun- daySupplementarticle.Theaccentonthrills,ontheincredible,isthesame.Medicalmagicrestoresdeaddogsand deadmentolife.Soldierswoundedinhighlyimportantorgans arebroughtbackbyskiledsurgerytotheirdutiesofincreas- ingthepopulationoftheFatherland.AserumcaledACSis rumoredtobeapotentialcureofcancer,aswellasameans ofnudgingeverycitizenpastthecenturymark.Heartsand othervitalorgansareshufledaroundamongvariousanimals withtheenthusiasticabandonofaschoolboyworkingona fly.Finally,ProfessorKonstantinBykovhasreceivedtheStalin Prize—whichincludesanawardofseveralthousandrubles forconditioningadog'sheartsothatitbeatfasterwhena bugleisblown.Atfirstadrenalinwasinjectedintoadog wheneverheheardthenotesofabugle.Later,theblaring buglealonewouldcausethedog'shearttobeatfasterandhis bloodpressuretorise.Thenextstepseemsobviousenough. ProfessorBykovhasonlytoconditionaSovietcitizeninthe samemanner,substitutingoneofDavidZaslaysky'seditorials forthenotesofthebugle. Anotherimportantaspectofthissuddenfloodofscientific newsoutofRussiaistheenthusiasticreportsofagreatmany leadingBritishandAmericanscientistsonscienceinthe SovietUnion.In1941,accordingtoareportonSovietmedicinerecentlypublishedintheAmericanjournal Science (pub- lishedbytheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementof Science)therewere223separateInstitutesformedicalre- searchintheSovietUnion.TheseInstitutesemployed19,000 scientificworkers.Andnowthatthewarisover,thescien- tificbudgetofthegovernmenihasbeenincreased,andnew institutesarebeingcreated,notonlyinmedicine,butin atomicphysics,andmanybranchesofappliedscience.ScientistsinRussiaareawardedprizeswhichbringwiththemtens ofthousandsofrubles.Theyareawardedleadingpolitical positions.Theenthusiasmoftheyoungerworkersisextreme, andvisitingscientificfiremenaregivenheartyreceptions. Suchapublicappreciationofscienceisparticularlydazzling toAmericanscientistswhoareaccustomedtopublichonor onlywhentheyserveasfrontmenforlargecorporationsor constructthemoreuniversalylethalofourwarweapons. Neverthelesstheevidenceindicatesthatscienceinthe SovietUnion,likeallaspectsofSovietculture,ismerelya pistolpointedattheheadoftheenemyofthemoment.Some- timestheenemyisfascism,sometimesthemassiveforcesof Finnishimperialism,andsometimestherigorsoftheRussian climate,whichforbidstheraisingoffivecropsayear. Russiansciencehasalsosuccumbedtotheintensewaveof nationalismwhichhasengulfedRussiaduringandsincethe GreatPatrioticWar.Russianpriorityinmanyscientificfields iscomingtolight,justasthehiddenvirtuesofsuchnature's nobelmenasIvantheTerriblearebeinguncovered.Perhaps therecentreligioustoleranceoftheSovietgovernmenthas madetheRussianpeoplemoresusceptibletoChineseancestor worship.IfwearetobelieveapressreleasefromVOKS( bpulishedbytheUSSRSocietyforCulturalRelationswithFor- eignCountries)whichwasreprintedintheFebruary15th isueof Science, "Fortwocenturies,Russianscholars,in- ventors,engineers,andtalented,self-taughtscientistscreated teleseMutdrimehigifittion."Thereportgoesonto claimthatamongothersthelightningrod,thesearchlight, theelectricmotor,andthetransformerweregiventoanungratefulworldbyRussiangenius.Radiowasthe"inspired invention"ofA.S.Popov,whileradiobroadcastingwasinventedbyM.A.Bonch-Bruevichin1920. AnotherindicationofthefierceatachmentoftheRussiansforanationalpastthattheyarerapidlycreatingfor themselves,iscontainedintheMarch29thissueof Science. J.G.Tolpinwritesaletterwhichannouncesthatthenewly foundedInstituteoftheHistoryofNaturalScienceinthe USSRispreparedtobeginaprogramofpublication.Theonly threehistoricaljournalsMr.Tolpinmentionsbynamearethe projectedHistoryofRussianNaturalScience,Outstanding LeadersofRussianScience,andGreatContributorstoRussianScience. Inspiteofhugebudgetsandaplethoraofjobs,Soviet scientistsareassubjecttooccupationalhazardswhichusual- lyinvolvedisappearancesandsuddendeathasthecharacters inaPunchandJudyshow.Typicalcasesinvolvingmine-run scientistsmaybefoundinanarticlewhichPhilipE.Mosely wrotefortheNovember,1938issueofthe Annalsofthe AmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience.Inethnography,forexample,Prigozhinwasthe"leaderofaterror- istband."AnethnographernamedZeleninwasdenounced forhavingabookpublishedinpre-HitlerGermany.Bogayev- skyhad"attributedclassantagonismstoCretansociety, whichMarxismclassifiedasapre-classsociety."Nikolsky, Tolstov,andMeshchaninov"underestimatedthedurationof tribalsocietyinthehistoryofmankind."AndMotorin, Busygin,andanonymousothersweredenouncedforhaving atemptedto"liquidateethnographyasascience." OneofthemostremarkablyfavorablepressesofallSoviet scientificachievementshasbeenreceivedbyAlexanderA. Bogomoletz,thenotedSovietstudentoflongevitywhodied inJulyofthisyearattheageof65.Hewasregardedasthe discovererofthemagicalACSwhichhasbeenvariouslyreportedasabletokeepthebodytissuesfromgrowingold, helpingpreventcancerandinfections,andhastensthehealing ofinjuriestothebodytissues.ButasAntonJ.Carlson,noted physiologistandlastyear'sheadoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofSciencehassaid,"alltheclaims forthisserumarestillontrial."Carlson,inareviewof Bogomoletz'book, TheProlongationofLife, intheJuly21 issueofthe ChicagoSun hasfurtheraccusedBogomoletzof manycontradictionsinhistheoryandplaceshiminthelong lineofSlaviclife-extenderswhichincludes.Metchnikofof Bulgarianbuttermilkfame,andVoronoffandhismonkey testicles.AndoneskepticalAmericanstudentoftheRussian scenehassuggestedthatBogomoletzwasnotasinterestedin prolonginghumanlifeingeneral,ashewasindiscoveringa wayinwhichthelifeofoneman,JosefStalin,couldbe prolonged. CaseHistory:TheGeneticsRow Since1936,Russiangeneticshasbeeninthethroesofone longtheoreticalconvulsion,aconvulsionwhichbyandlarge hasbeenhiddenfrombourgeoiseyes.Therewasatimewhen Russiangeneticistsattendedinternationalcongressesoftheir felows.ScientistsadmitedthatVavilov,theleadingRussian geneticist,wasafigureofworldimportanceforhisresearches intotheoriginanddevelopmentoffoodplants.Hehadculti-
304 politics vatedmorethan35,000differentkindsofwheat,forexample, andshownthatcivilizationdependeduponfoodplantsthat camefromSouthwesternAsiaandEthiopia. Aworldmeetingofgeneticistswasscheduledtomeetin Moscowin1937.Then,accordingtoRobertSimpsonwriting intheSaturdayReviewofLiterature,theinvitationwassuddenlywithdrawn.TheEnglishman,P.C.Koler,writingin Science, reportsthatnoRussiangeneticistsatendedtheSixth InternationalCongressofGeneticswhichwasheldinEdin- burghin1939,eventhoughalargedelegationwasexpected toatend.AndevenafterWorldWarII,Russiangeneticists didnotattendtheLondonConferenceonGenetics.Andthis inspiteofthefactthatVavilovhadbeenelected, inabsentia, presidentofthe1939congress. Somuchisagreedbyalauthorities.Butwhathasbeengo- ingoninRussiangeneticshasonlybeenunderstoodbypiecemealinterpretation.Mosely,forexample,reportsastruggle betweenthefolowersofVavilovandthefolowersof a youngermannamedLysenko.Earlyin1936Lysenkoopened thebattleagainstVavilovbyatackingthegeneticistA.S. Serebrovsky.By1937LysenkohaddenouncedVavilovhim- self.Thechargesflewfastoncetheywerestarted.ThegeneticistYagolwasarestedin1937asafascistagent.Serebrovsky folowedtheformulabyrecantinghis"counter-revolutionary andunscientific"ideas.InOctober,1937the Bolshevik began toreviewthe"cleansing"ofthe"geneticsfront". ItwasdiscoveredthatthejournalofBiologicalReferencehadbeen editedbythe"fascistagentinSovietbiology,M.Levin". Meantime,Lysenko,althoughhehadreceivedatepidre- prooftowardthebeginningofhiscampaign,advancedrapidly. SimpsonreportsthatLysenkonowheadstheLeninAll-Union AcademyofAgriculturalScience,whichwascreatedforhis specialbenefit.HeisadeputytotheSupremeSoviet,amem- berofthecommissioninvestigatingGermanwarcrimes.He hasreceivedtheOrderofLeninwithitsvaluablemoneyprize. Hisbooksselinthemilions. PartofLysenko'srisehasbeenduetoresearchesonplants thathavebeenreportedtobeofgreatpracticalimportance. Hedevelopedtheprocessofvernalizationoryarovisation whichwasoriginallydiscoveredbytheAmericanJohnM. Klippartabout90yearsago.Bytreatingwheatseedwith moisture,andvaryingtheamountsoflightwhichfellupon it,Lysenkowasabletochangewinterwheattospringwheat, andviceversa.Thetreatmentwithlightwasbaseduponthe workthattwoAmericanbotanists,AlardandGarner,had doneon"longday"and"shortday"plants.TheRussianshave reportedthatvernalizationincreasedwheatyieldscon- siderably.Theysaythatfourorfivecropsofspringwheata yearcanbegrownbyapplyingLysenko'sprinciples.Simpson reportsthatatemptstouseLysenko'sprinciplesoutsidethe SovietUnionhavemetwithlittlesuccess. AnotherstepinLysenko'scampaigncamein1939.Inthe AmericanJournalofHeredityJ.W.Pincusreviewsthere- portofaconferenceheldinearlyMarchinMoscow,onthe subjectofplantbreeding.Lysenkoseemstohavecompletely dominatedtheconference,whichwasreportedunderthetitle of UndertheBannerofDarwin. Lysenkopointedoutthat thereweretwodistincttrendsinRussiangenetics.OnefollowedMendel'stheories,andheldthatenvironmentalcondi- tionsdonotessentialychangeanorganism.TheotherfollowedDarwinandrecognizedthattheenvironmentcould changethenatureoftheorganismandthecharacteristicsit passedontoitsdescendants.AsfarasLysenkoisconcerned, Mendel'slawthatsecondgenerationhybridssegregateina ratioof3to1asfarastheircharacteristicsareconcernedis completelyfalse. Atthisconference,Vavilovpresentedthestandard,worldBfblefddgeefdtgrnaoftheprinciplesofheredityas theyhavebeenworkedoutbyDarwin,Mendel,ThomasHunt Morgan,andothers.Hewassupportedbyanotherscientist whopointedoutthatallRussianvarietiesofwheathadbeen developedbytheseacceptedmethods.Buthiscauseandthe causeofwhatisgeneralyconsideredworldsciencewasal- readydefeatedbeforetheconferencebegan. Lysenkos' associate,Prezent,wasquicktoatackVavilov's ideas.HeridiculedtheMendeliantheoryas"Threelikemama andonelikepapa,orthreelikepapaandonelikemama." Prezentconcludedthedebatebypointingoutthattherewere twoAmericas.Theyarethe"Americaofthedrosophilist MorganandtheAmericaoftheCreatorofVarieties—Burbank.WhileVavilovisfortheAmericaofMorgan,we,Dar- winists,arefortheAmericaofBurbank." Thereis,ofcourse,onlyonetroublewithLysenko'sap- pealtoDarwin.ThereisnothinginDarwinismtoindicate theenvironmentcanpermanentlychangethenatureofthe organism.Onthecontrary,suchideaswereheldbythebiologistLamarck,whoseevolutionarytheorywasoverthrownby Darwin.ThesecondyearstudentinAmericanhighschools canexplainthefalaciesofLamarck'stheories. Lysenkowonthedisputehandsdown.Vavilov,likeso manymilionsintheSovietUnion,simplydisappeared.Vladi- mirC.Asmous,writingaletterintheMarch1,1946issueof Science says,"WenowhavereliableinformationthatVavilov diedinaconcentrationcampinSiberiain1942."(TheRussianshavebeensocontemptuousofworldscientificopinion thattheyhaveseennoneedforeitherconfirmingordenying theAr mepeoric r a t n .) shavehadanopportunitytoexamineLysenko's ideasatfirsthandwiththepublicationofhisbook Heredity andItsVariability. Therearethreereviewsofthisbookbeforemeas I writethis.OneisbyWaldemarKaempffert, scienceeditorofthe NewYork.Times, whofirstbeganwritingabouttheLysenko-Vavilovcontroversyasfarbackas 1939.AnotherisbyL.C.Dunn,ProfessorofZoologyat Columbia,ChairmanoftheAmericanSovietScienceSociety whowritesin Science. ThelastisbyRobertSimpsoninthe SaturdayReviewofLiterature.Allthreereviewsareincom- pleteagreement;Lysenkorunscompletelycountertoall knownfactsaboutbreeding. KaempffertpointsoutthatLysenkoderiveshisideasfrom Mitchurin"asortofBurbank."ItwasMitchurinwhom Lysenkoquotesashavinginventedtheterm"pealaw"for Mendelianscience.MoreinsorowthaninangerDunnpoints outthatLysenkoisasortof"biologicalfundamentalist." Thisisputtingitmildly.Scientistsbelievethatnomatter howwithafewexceptions,suchasX-raysandthedrug colchicine--anorganismisaffectedbytheenvironment,the ofspringoftheorganismwillnotbeafected.Nomatterhow manygenerationsofratshavetheirtailscutoff,thestubborn ofspringmaketheirbowintotheworldequippedwithtails. Russiangeneticistsholdthatthissadstateofaffairsmustbe combatted;itdemands,toquoteoneofLysenko'schapter headings,"TheLiquidationoftheConservatismoftheNa- tureofOrganisms." WhatexplanationisthereforLysenko?Afewsolutions maybesuggested;inthefirstplaceheisanidealcitizenof asocietythathasacompletecontemptfortheoryinfavorof practicalresults.LysenkoasaDarwinistisjustasplausible andconsistentasHitlerasapractisingmemberoftheChas- sidim.ButRussianleaders,Russiantheoreticians,wouldbe perfectlywilingtoteachthatthemoonwasmadeofgreen cheeseif itwouldaddfivebushelstotheaverageannualyield ofwheatperacre.Oncethestateapparatusisundertightcon- trolanyideacanbemadetobebelieved.Whichmakespathetic andnaiveDunn'sremarkthatLysenkorepresentsa"smal
OCTOBER,1946 305 minoritygroup."Thefateofsmalminoritygroupsinthe SovietUnionisnotthatofhonorsandpublication. Butthemenwhocondemntheory,stillrealizethattheory isvaluableasawindowdressing.Theywerenot,forexample, wilingtoexposeLysenko's epigone Lamarckismtothegive- and-takeofaninternationalcongress.Thereceptionmight notbefavorable;thedelegatescouldnotbeforcedtokeep oneeyeontheagenda,theotherontheLubianka. Thereisoneotherreasonwhyatotalitarianbureaucracy wouldliketobelievethattheefectsoftheenvironment mightbeinherited.Perhapswecanalmostseethehopeful gleaminthebureaucrat'seye—itwillbeonlynecessaryto conductonepurge,eliminatetheenemiesthatbelongtoa singlegenerationortwo.Onceanentirepopulationcanbe broughtupinblindworshipoftheleader,thechildrenwill growupdocilecreaturesofthestate.Anditmustberememberedthatalthroughthetwentiesandthirties,thesingleprize jewelofRussiansciencewasthe"conditionedreflex"ofPavlov,amethodbywhichgrowlsandpurrsinthegovernment prescouldbeexpectedtocreatedesiredactionsinthe population. Butthereisonefundamentaldiferenceinlyingabouthistory,orpolitics,economics,andart,andinlyingabout science.Inlyingabouttheformertopics,theresultsarenot immediatelyfataltolargenumbersofpeople.Butscientific factscannotbeignoredanddistortedwithoutrunningan immediateandpracticaldanger.Whenhistoryisinvented, onlythedeadareslandered,onlythelivingsubjectedtofalse ideas.Liescanbepileduponliesindefinitely.Butwhenthe factsofgeneticsareignoredinacountrywitharapidlyexpandingpopulation,somebodyisgoingtostarve. AccordingtoSimpson,Lysenko'striumphmeantthatthe carefuly-conductedplantbreedingexperimentsofVavilov havebeenabandoned.Instead,theagriculturalexperiment stationsareconcentratingupongraftingexperimentsinorder tochangethefundamentalnatureofplants.Worldgenetics andRussiangeneticscannotbebothright.Chancesarethat weneedmerelytositbackandwaitfortheopeningblastin Pravda followedbymonthsofdetaileddenunciationwhich willremoveLysenkofromtheRussianscene. GEORGMANN PERISH-THE-THOUGHTDEPT. TheNewPostwarPMyou'veheardtalkedaboutwill beamore complete--anda better,stronger—PMthanwe'veeverbeenable togetoutbefore. It will bemorelikePMthanPMitself! —editorialbyRalphIngersol in"PM,"May6. ATLAST—AREVOLUTION! Unnoticedin the steady flow ofEuropeanpolitical crises, the FrenchConstituentAssemblyhasadopted,withoutdebateoropposition, a lawwhichends all government-regulatedbrothelsnext October. . . . This is averitablerevolutioninFrenchattitudes. WorldoverPressreport,July17 ORWELL,YOUCAN'THAVEEVERYTHING! TheTabungasesarebloodandnervepoisons. . . .Exposuretoa highconcentrationcausesinstantdeath. It iscapableofpenetrating theskinandcausingdeathbysystemicpoisoning. . . . Thedisad- vantagesof thisnewgasareseveral: it canbeeasilywashedor removedfromtheskinwithnodanger ifdonepromptly;contaminated surfacesareeasilycleaned. . . . —HansonW.Baldwinin"N.Y.Times,"July5. PROGRESSINCOLOMBIA Withunprecedentedspeed,theColombiangovernmenthasbeen drivingthrough a significantset of social lawswhichpromiseto aidthemassesintheireverydaylife. . . .Anotherbasiclawobliges everycitizentovote in all electionsundervariouspenaltieswhich include,insomecases,imprisonment. WorldoverPressreport,July17. BibliotecaGinoBianco Comment TheSeamen's ThegreatestmaritimestrikeinU.S. Strike h i s t o r y endedonSeptember12.Forthe wekitlasted,hardlyanAmerican-flag shipmovedoutofanyU.S.port.Some90,000membersof AFLmaritimeunionsweredirectlyinvolved,buttherefusal everywhereoftheCIOmaritimeunionsaswelasthetugboatmenandlongshorementocrosspicketlinesbroughtthetotal workersidletosome500,000.Therewasnoviolence;neither theshipownersnortheGovernmentmadeanyatempttosail thestruckships;"token"picketlinesofoneortwomento apierweresuficienttoclosedownalloperations.Whenone adsthatitwasastrikeagainsttheGovernmentandthatit endedincompletevictoryfortheunions,onemightconclude thatitwasofenormouspoliticalsignificance.Itwas,butnot intheclass-strugglesense.Ratherinthesamewaythatthe businesscommunity'soffensiveagainstOPAissignificant:as partoftheclashbetween"freeenterprise"capitalismand Statecapitalism. EarlyinJuly,thetwoAFLunionstheSeafarers'Interna- tionalUnion(SIU)andtheSailors'UnionofthePacific (SUP)—negotiatedanewwagescalewiththeshipowners; thisscalewashigherthanthenewscaletheCIOmaritime unionshadgotenafewweeksearlier.Theshipownersthen joinedtheunionsinaskingtheWageStabilizationBoard (WSB)toapprovethenewscale.TheWSBistolaborwhat theOPAistobusiness:aGovernmentagencythatissupposedtoholddownprices(inthiscase,thepriceoflabor)so astopreventinflation.OnAugust24,theWSBruledthat itwouldapprovewagesfortheAFLunionsuptothelevel obtainedbytheCIOunions,butnohigher.WhentheWSB stoodpatonthisruling,thestrikewascaled. U.S. Laborand The strikewasnovelinthatthe "FreeEnterprise" employers,aftertheirlobbyistsin Washingtonhadunsuccessfuly triedtogettheWSBtopermitthepaymentof higher wages, stoodfirmlybehindthestrikersthroughoutthestrike.What unitedcapitalandlaboragainsttheGovernmentwasthe factthattheideologyofbothinthiscountrystillismore "FreeEnterprise"than"Statist."Thesailorswereproudthat theygottheirwagerisewithoutanyhelpfromtheState;and althemoreindignantwhentheStatetriedtotakeitaway. "Wenegotiateddirectlywiththeshipoperatorstherewas noGovernmentinthepicture," declaredJohnHawk,ofthe SIU."Theboard'srefusaltosanctionlegitimately-wonin- creasesthrowsthewholethingout.""Thistypeofaction,if alowedtocontinue,"warnedtheSIUjournal,willdestroy freecolectivebargaining,andatthesametimefosterdangerousGovernmentcontrolofunionsandindustry." WhileJohn L.Lewis,thegreatestFreeEnterpriserofthemall,rumbled thathehadadvisedtheAFL"towithdrawfromthateconomic boar'snestthatcalsitselftheWageStabilizationBoard." Theboar'snestwascertainlyinatoughspot.If itpermited thenewrates,howcoulditdenyotherincreases,whichit foresawwouldbedemandedatonce,beginningwiththeCIO maritimeunions?Itsfunctionwouldthenbemeaningless.But ontheotherhand,asChairmanWirtzoftheboardhadad- mitedonJune29,theGovernment'swagestabilizationpolicy wasdirectlylinkedtoitspricestabilizationpolicy.OPAis hardlyabadjokeanymore;realwagesareestimatedtohave declinedbetween10and20%(dependingonthepoliticsof
RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy MTExMDY2NQ==