• Comment 6 5 RebelionorReconversion?byDwight BOOKS WarasanInstitution (7): Macdonald 77 ReviewbyBenRayRedman 88 WordsandWar,bySimoneWeil 6 9 MarxismandEthics,byPhilipSpratt 79 NEWROADS: LondonLetter,byGeorgeWoodcock 7 4 DiscussionbyJamesT.Farrel 89 Commonnonsense,byNiccoloTucci 7 6 TheMadKing,byJackJones 85 THEINTELLIGENCEOFFICE 93 ExitPursuedbyBear, bySeldenRodman77 PERIODICALS,byKathrynCarlisle 86 POLITICKING 95 a 250acopy Mardi,19-16 Comment WarWith-Churchill'sspeechinMissouri,withitscall outEnd f o r anAnglo-Americanmilitaryalianceand itsopenincitementof anideologicalwar againstRussia,promptsmetosomereflectionsonthelate war.Whileitwasinprocess,thoseeccentricswhoopposed itweretoldbyallsensiblephilistinesthattheywereUnrealistic:grantedthat"our"sidewasfarfromperfect,was itnotobviousthatanAliedvictorywouldbealesserevil thanaNazivictory? I wasmyselfthebeneficiaryofmany suchhomilies. I tmadenoimpressiononthesesensible peopletoreplythattheproblemswefacedweredynamic oneswhichcouldnotbesolvedbyamilitaryvictoryof eitherside,thatthetriumphofthelesserevilwouldturn outtobemerelythetriumphofthegreaterevilinadifferentform,andthatachoicebetweenanAlliedanda Nazivictorywasachoicebetweenbeingstrangledor poisoned. ItislessthanayearsincethewarendedinEurope,and alreadytheworld,havingavoidedbeinghangedbyHitler, isbeingpoisonedbythevictors.Thegloomiestpredictions ofthoseofuswhoopposedthewararebeingfulfilledwith aspeedandonascalewhichtomeatleastisquiteunexWpehctaetdw. asthewarfoughtfor,accordingtotheRealists? Thewarwasfought tosecurefreedomofspeechand freedomfromfear—i.e.,freedom.frompoliticaldictatorship. Russiantotalitarianismhasdirectcontrolof all EasternEurope,hasgreatinfluenceinWesternEurope throughitsdisciplinedCommunistparties,andisexpand- ingthroughouttheOrient. Thewarwasfoughttosecurefreedomfrom-want. A worldfoodcrisis,forwhichtheAmericangovernmentis largelyresponsible,hasmaterialized.Not forcenturies havesomanymilionsofpeoplebeenfacedwithactual starvation. I t isexpectedtobemanymonths,perhaps years,beforethesefamineconditionsaremastered. Thewarwasfought toeliminateRacism. Thenews- papersconstantlytellusthatanti-semitismismorewidespreadinEuropetodaythanitwasundertheNazis;the tragicremnantsoftheJewsofEuropehaveoneoverwhelmingdesiretoleavetheirnativelands,wheretheyarede- spised,persecuted,threatened. Titewarwasfoughtaboveall tolaythefoundationsfor a peacefulworld. TheRussianandtheBritishempireshave benclashingwithmountingintensity,andnow,withSec- retaryByrnes'recentspeechandhisproteststoRussiaon IranandManchuria,thiscountryenterstheconflict.The UNOisalreadyabadjoke;RussiafearstheAnglo-Americanaxis,whichinturnfearsRussianexpansionism;both sidesareexasperated,intransigeant,bellicose.Thedevelopmentoftheatomicbombaddsthemaximumtechnological forcetotheblindnationalisticantagonismsthatareconductingustoWorldWarIII. Already,Stalin'sRussiahastakentheplaceofHitler's Germanyasaruthlesstotalitarianpowerthatisouttoup- settheAnglo-Americanstatusquo;theparalelsthatcan bedrawnbetween1945-6and1934-9arerealyterrifying. Already,theRealistsaremakinganotherlesser-evilchoice, preparingto"defend"anadmittedlyimperfectAnglo- American"democraticwayoflife"againstRussiantotalitarianism.Already,theargumentsarebecominghorribly familiar:Isn'tourimperfectdemocracybeterthanStalin's (Hitler's)dictatorship? I f Stalin(Hitler) isnot"stop- ped",itwillbeourturnsoon.Areyouwilingtofacethe prospectofaCommunist(Nazi)world?Thereareonly twoRealisticalternatives:either"appeasement"orresistance,byforceifnecessary.Just one morewar,andwe shalhavethosefamousConditionsforDemocraticProgress atlastfirmlyestablished! Itmaybethatthereislittleornochanceofthekindof revolutionarychangeinourownandRussia'sinstitutions whichwouldbeneededtoavoidathirdworldwar;itmay beweareoncemoreinablindalley,andthistimewith theactualextinctionofhumanlifeonthisplanetasits ending.Butletusatleastfacatherealsituationandnot continuetodeceiveourselves,andcorruptourvalues,by makinganotherlesser-evilchoice.Fromboththescientific BibliotecaGinoBianco
66 andtheethicalstandpoint,it willbedisastroustothink that"our"sidewillbeanymoresuccessfulineliminating byforceofarmstheevilsrepresentedbyRussiantotalitar- ianismthanitwasinthecaseoftheNazis;evenlessso, inallprobability. I t maybethereisnoexitfromthe blindalley,butsurelythefirstconditionforfindingoneis togiveupthesuperficiallesser-evilapproach,withthe supportitimpliesforafuturewaragainstRussia,infavor ofamoreradicalandbasicapproach,beitpacifistorsocial- revolutionaryorperhapssomenewcombinationofboth. TheOneThere isonerift inthedarkcloudsrising BrightSpotthroughouttheworld:thespiritedrebellions ofthepeoplesofIndo-China,Indonesia,and nowIndia.TheIndonesianrevolthasturnedouttobethe mostsuccessfulnativeuprisinginmodernhistory.The turning-pointprobablycametowardstheendofDecember. Fortwomonths,theBritishforcesunderthatgreatLaborite commander,AdmiralLordLouisMountbaten,hadbeen meetingincreasinglyviolentresistancefromtheIndones- ians,andhadreactedtoitwiththeusualmilitaryreflex: rocket-planeattacks,navalbombardments,importationof toughparatroops,reprisalburningsofnativetowns.But then,itappears,theBritishandDutchgovernments,being civiliansandthereforesomewhatmoreintouchwithpoliticalrealities,decidedthattheresistancewasbeingexacer- batedratherthanbroken,andthereforecountermanded Mountbaten'sordersforaneven"firmer"policy.(The intensityofthefeelingforfreedomisindicatedbythefact thatthereare183differentpoliticalgroupingsamongthe IndonesiansN. Y.Times, Feb.25whichhavebeenable nonethelesstopresentasolidfrontagainstDutchrule.) OnFebruary10,theDutchgovernmentofferedIndonesia dominionstatus,withitsownpopularlyelectedparliament, equalcivilrightswithcitizensofthemothercountry,and therightafter a"limitedperiod"notyetspecifiedto votefreelywhethertocontinueinpartnershipwithHoland ortobecomecompletelyindependent.Todate,thisoffer hasnotbeenacceptedbytheleadersofthe"Indonesian Republic"whichheadstherebelion, a factwhichin- dicatesthestrengthbothoftherebels'positionandoftheir justifiedsuspicionsoftheDutch. ThatHistoryisagoddesswithawrysenseofhumorhas oftenbeenremarked.Certainlyshehasrarelyshowna moreironicalspiritthaninthebooby-trapsheriggedup toexposetheshamofBritishLaborParty"socialism."The Indonesianaffairwasonlythebeginning:heretheLaborites foundthemselvesforcedtosuppressacolonialrebellion againsttheDutchlestthewholestructureofimperialism, inwhichtheyhaveaconsiderableinvestment,beshaken. Butnowtheyareconfrontedwith"problems"muchcloser tohome:thefabricoftheBritishEmpire,infact,which BevinhasindicatedhecherishesasdearlyasChurchildid, iscomingapartattheseams.Bloodyriotinghasbroken outinEgypt.Jamaica,India.Sincetheyhavenothingto oferthenativesexcepttheoldhypocriticalpromises (whichinturnisbecausetheBLPlacksanyrealvisionof abetterworld),theLaboritessofarhavereactedwith militaryforce; if theylateronmakeconcessions,asthe Dutchhavedone,itwillbebecausetheysimplycannotdo othTehr ewInised. iansituationisthemostserious.Towardsthe endofFebruarythereoccuredthefirstlarge-scalemutiny ofnativetroopssincethegreatSepoyMutinyofthelast century.Onthe21stthecrewsof alargepartofthe IndianNavymutiniedagainstbadfoodandracialdiscrimination,heldtheiroficerscaptive,andexchangedshots withshorebateries•4cmthe27thsome2,500Sepoytroops BibnotecaGinoBianco polities mutiniedatJubbulpore.Thenavalmutinystimulatedwide- spreadriotinginBombay,withlooting,burning,anda casualtylistrunningintothethousands.Theseriotswere spontaneouspopulardemonstrations,expressingdiscontent withthefailureoftheLaborGovernmenttotakestepsto- wardsIndianindependenceandalsofearoftheimpending faminewhichtheBritishrajhasbeenunabletoavert.The CongressPartyhadnopartinorganizingthem.Indeed, GandhiandtheotherPartyleadersappealedtotherioters torefrainfromviolentaction,whichwasagainsttheParty's principles.PremierAttleeblamedit allon"Communist Agitators",intheclassicreactionaryformulation,anditis unquestionablethatRussiawasdelightedandprobable thathernativefolowerstookanactivepartintheriots. But,asisalwaysthecase,theagitatorscouldonlyagitate successfulybecausetherewassomethingtoworkon.The riotsseemtohavebeenanelemental,formlessoutburst, notarevolutionbutratherasignthatarevolutionmaynot befaroff. ThedepthofthispopularresentmentagainsttheBritish isshownbyitspenetrationintothemilitaryforces.To helpfightthewar,BritaincreatedanIndianArmyofno lessthan2,500,000men,towhomrelativelyhighpaywas givenasaninducementtoenlist(Indiafootedthebill,of course).Nowthishugeforce,onwhichtheLaborgovern- mentdependstopolicesuchtroublespotsasGreece,Syria, Egypt,Indonesia,HongKongandMalayashowssignsof "disaffection."OnFebruary28,thedayaftertheSepoys mutiniedatJubbulpore,GeneralAuchinleck,BritishCom- manderinIndia,announcedthatthewithdrawalofIndian troopsfromIndonesiawasgoinantobegin"tomorrow." Asa N.Y.Times corespondentputit, inwordswhich recallTrotsky'sanalysisofthedecompositionoftheCzarist armyduringthe1917revolution:"Themostdisturbing factoristhatthepersonnelofthearmedforcesarenow beingsubjectedtoallthepoliticalstressesandstrainsthat afectthecivilpopulation." No.IPolitical"Themainpoliticalfactintheworldto- Fact:Hungerdayishunger."TheBritishM.P.whorecentlysaidthisinParliamentwasnotex- aggerating.When Iwrote"StarvationAmerica'sChristmasGifttotheEuropeanPeoples"threemonthsago,the gravityofthefoodcrisiswasnotgenerallyknown;our presshadminimizedit,ourpoliticalleadershadkeptsilent orevenissuedoptimisticreports.Sincethen,eventhemost polities VOLUME3,No.3(WholeNo.26) M A R C H , 1946 Ed;tor:DwightMacdonald Etnt-..ssManagers:DorothyBrumm,NancyMacdonald POLITICSispublishedmonthlyat 45AstorPlace,New York3. N. Y., byPoliticsPublishingCo.Telephone: GRamercy3-1512. Subscription$2.50foroneyear,$4fortwoyears.Add 30eayearforCanada.50eayearforallotherforeign countries.Singlecopy:25c.Mostbackissuesarestillavailable. SpecialrateforservicemenandC.O.'sanywhere:$1.75 aye3r. SubscribersNote: Rtakesus10daystochangeyour address.Pleaseletushavechangesofaddresspromptly. CopyrightMarch,1946,byPoliticsPublishingCo.Entered assecond-classmatterMarch16,19441 at thepostoficeatNewYork,undertheActofMarch3,1879. s5
MARCH,1946 67 casualnewspaperreaderknowsthattheworldfacesacrisis worsethananythinginthewar,thatfaminesonascale unknownforcenturiesareimminentinbothEuropeand AsTiah.efirstdangersignwasFrance'sreimpositionofbread rationing(liftedafewmonthsearlier)onDecember27;a fewweekslater,theDeGauleGovernmentfell, largelyon thefoodissue;todayFranceishungrierthaneverand judgingfromthedozensof lettersthatcometoPOLITICS everyweekfromourfriendstherethesituationisgeting woOrsneF. ebruary5, theBritishFoodMinisterstunnedthe countrywithanannouncementofsevererationcuts. Thefolowingbday,Trumanmadehis firstpublicadmissionofthewheatshortage,proposingcertainmildsteps andhintingatareimpositionofrationingoverhere. OnMarch1,theBritishcutrationsintheirzoneofGer- manyfrom1,500caloriesadayto1,040;similarcutswill almostcertainlyfolowintheotherzones,andTrumanhas madeitclearthat"wearecertainlynotgoingtogivemore foodtoourenemiesthantoourfriends",whichmeansthe alreadydesperatepositionof theGermansisbecoming muchworse.(The2,000tonsof reliefpermonthwhich TrumanhasnowpermittedprivateagenciestobeginshippingintoGermanyis justatokenUNRRAshipsabout 500timesasmuchgoodsamonth.) Italy isevenhungrierthanGermany:rationsnoware oficialysetat650caloriesaday;UNRRAwillspend $375millionstherethisyear,but thiswill atbestonly keeprationsatthisfaminelevel. IntheEast,MacArthurhasjust tripledhisoriginalre- questforAmericangrainstofeedtheJapanese,whileIndia facesafarworsefaminethanthatinBengalin1943,when some1,500,000personsdied. TheAmerican I n "Starvation" I describedtheshocking Failure(Conticl.) failure of over-fedAmerica to help Europe:thethree-monthdelay inCon- gressoverUNRRAappropriations,therefusaltouseour hugemilitarysurplusesabroadfor relief,thetimidityand incompetenceof theTrumanadministration,thesabotage bythefoodinterests.Thepaternstillremainsaboutthe same.Somerecentitems: ÇAsofMarch2, of the$3billionsworth of usable civilian suppliesinU.S.ArmystockpilesinEurope,only slightlyover$100millionsworthhadbeensoldand almostall ofthattoUNRRA. I havebeenunabletofind anyonewhocangiveasensibleexplanationofwhythis enormouscacheofdesperatelyneededgoodsisallowedto rotmonthaftermonth,guardedbythousandsofhome- sickGI's. ÇLastfallTrumanpromised8milliontonsof coal to Europethiswinter.OnJanuary4,ReconversionDirector Snyderrevealedwewerethen2miliontonsbehindschedule ondeliveries. ÇTheUSquotaofmeatforUNRRAwas300million poundsforthefirstquarterof1946;deliveriesinthefirst halfof thisperiodwere91/2millionpounds.Onereason: TheDepartmentofAgriculturerefusedtostartdeliveries until ithadtheactualcashinhand;althoughUNRRAhad beenvotedfundsbyCongressinDecember,it takesweeks ofredtapetogetthem‘through,andmeanwhilenot a poundofmeat.Note:onFebruary6,Trumangranny announcedthattheUSwillshipabroadinthefirsthalfof 1946oneBILLIONpoundsofmeatbut forgottomention thatuptothenlessthan1percentofthattotalhadbeen shipped.Alsonote:bymid-February,CanadahadshippedoveronethirdofthemeatshehadpromisedUNRRA fortheentireyear. BibliotecaGinoBianco ÇCongresshasyettoshowanysignofpassingthefinal $600millionappropriationforUNRRA. I f this isnot passedbytheendofMarch,therewillbeanotherbreakin UNRRA'spipeline. ÇTheDepartmentofAgricultureestimatesthatAmericans nowwasteone-fifthasmuchfoodastheyeat orenough tofeed25milionpeople. ÇTheliftingofrationinghasbeenaheadachetotheNew YorkCityDepartmentofSanitation.CommissionerPowel complainsofincreasedgarbagecolections:"Noonesaves anything,nowthatrationingisover.Twoweeksinearly Februaryshowedanincreaseof124,115cubicyardsof materialpickedupbyourtrucksascomparedwiththe sameperiodin1945. I t wasn'tjustthosetwoweekseither. Youcouldpickanytwoweeksthiswinteranditwouldbe thesame."(N.Y.Times,March10) ÇAnotherkindofwasteiscausedbythesuccessfuleforts bythefoodindustrytokeepthingswithincommercial channels.TheVictoryColectionofCannedFoodsdrive isanexample.Formonthsanationwidecampaignwas putontogetpeopletodonatecannedfoodstoUNRRAfor overseasshipment.Millionsofcanswerecolected,which isfineandatributetotheAmericanpeople'sgenerousim- pulses.Buthowmuchmorefoodcouldhavebeengiven toUNRRAhadthesamemoneybeenusedinbulkpun chasesinsteadofspentat retailprices,whichincludeadvertisinganddistribution.Alsothetransportationeffortin colectingthecanswouldhavebeengreatlyreduced. ÇItwon'tdotoblameit all juston"theinterests."Gov- ernmentallackofforesightisequalyimportant.Thusthe foodindustrywashavingitsannualconventionwhenTru- manmadehisFebruary6speech. Its leadersinsistedthey weretakenbysurprise."Theysaidtheyhadbeenopera- tingontheassumptionthatconditionsweremovingtoward normal,andtheirmajorconcern,fosteredbyGovernment speakersontheirprograms,hadbeenwithmaintaininghigh salesvolumeanddisposingofpossiblesurpluses." (N.Y. Times, Feb.8.) Itseemslikelythatthisisasincereprotest. Truman'smethodofdealingwithunpleasantissuesis to donothingaslongaspossible; itbecomescatastrophic whenfaminethreatenstheworld. TheWheat Of all basicfoods,wheatisthemostimport- Shortage a n t because i t is cheap,plentiful,easily storedandtransported,andverynutritious. Thedeficitintheworld'swheatsupplyisthemostserious elementinthepresentcrisis.Althoughgraintradersand Governmentoficialshaveknownsincelastsummerthata wheatshortagewasimpending,thefirstthegeneralpublic knewabout itwaswhenthepapersofJanuary4carried aninside-pagestoryestimatingthatthefourwheat-export- ingcountries(USA,Canada,Australia,Argentina)could notpossiblysupplymorethan12milliontonsof the17 milliontonsEuropeandAsiawouldneedforthefirsthalf of1946. A monthlater, theshortagewassobadthat TrumanwasforcedtodevotehisFebruary6speechto it. ByearlyMarch,estimatesofworldneedhadrisento21 milliontons,largelybecauseofupwardrevisionsinthe needsof IndiaandJapan.And aWashingtondispatch datedMarch9suggeststhattheUSA,asusual,will fall behindonthe6milliontons it issupposedtocontribute forthishalf-year,perhapsbyasmuchasathird. I f this happens,thedeficitassumingnofurtherincreases in estimatesofneedwill be11milliontonsbytheendof June. Becausewheatis the cheapbasicfood(fats,meats, eggs,milk,areinevenshortersupply,sothereisnothing totakewheat'splace)adeficitofanythinglikethisfigure canonlymeanthedeathinthenextfewmonthsofmilions ofpeopleinEuropeandAsia.
68 p o l i t i c s Thetragedycouldhavebeenavoidedhadcertainsteps beentakenlastsummer,insteadof inFebruary,1946.Price policiestodivertwheatfromanimaltohumanconsump- tion,avetoonuseofwheatforbeerandwhisky,requirementofadarkerloafofbreadtheseobvioussteps,nowbe- ingtaken,areahalfyearlate.Themostessentialstephas notevenyetbeentaken:atransportationpriorityforwheat onAmericanrailroadslikethatgiventomunitionsduring thewar.Lack ofboxcarsandhandlingfacilitiesatthe portsisonebigreasonthiscountrycanshipabroadonly miliontonsofwheatthishalf-year(andprobablynot eventhatmuch).But therailroadsandtheircustomers canmakemoremoneyonothergoods,andTrumanisnot onewhowouldthrottlefreeenterprise. Thetragedycouldevenhavebeenavoidedhadtwosteps not beentaken.Onewastheliftingof allcontrolsfrom wheatlastAugustbytheCombinedFoodBoard(USA, Britain,Canada),whichhadhandledwheatexportsall throughthewarunderinternationalalocation.Despitethe shortageofships,theCFBhadbeenabletogetenough wheatshippedtomaintainat leastminimumnutritional levelsthroughoutthewar. But lastAugust,perhapsinfectedbytheepidemicofheadlong"decontroling"then takingplaceinthiscountry,theCFBfreedwheatfromall controls,stating:"Suppliesofwheat inNorthAmerica andArgentina will beadequatetomeet all indicatedimport requirementforhumanfood. . . .Wheatandflourhave beenremovedfromformalinternationalallocationrecommendations."Theresultsof thisabdicationofplanning arenowbeingfelt. OnFebruary6,UNRRADirectorGeneralLehmancabledtheUNOaskingthat"thegovern- mentsconcerned.. . .reconsidermosturgentlythedecision takeninmid-1945toremovewheatandflourfrominter- nationalallocation."Todatethishasnotbeendone. Theotherstepwasmuchthemoreserious:theread- justmentof farmpriceswhichtheU.S.Departmentof Agriculturemadelastspring.Theefectof theDepart- ment'snewpricepolicy(whichSecretaryAndersonnow admitswas"anerror injudgment")wastomakeitmore profitableforfarmerstofeedtheirgraintolivestockthan tosell it forhumanconsumption.Accordingly,lastyear USfarmersfedover200millionbushelsofwheattotheir hogs,cattleandchickens.Thiswas fourtimes asmuch astheyhadsousedinprewaryears,andcomesalmost exactlytothe6miliontonsourGovernment hopes toship abroadduringthefirsthalfof thisyear. A tonofwheat consumeddirectlybyhumanbeingswill feeda lotmore peoplethanthesameamount if it is firstconvertedinto meat.Thusthediversionofwheatfromanimalfeedingto humanconsumptionhasbeenurgentforalongtime,and yetevennowtheoriginalmistakehasnotbeenremedied inanyvigorousfashion. A ceilinghasbeenputonthe weightofhogs,andonMarch2thepriceofwheatwas raisedbythetrivialsumof3cabushel.Thesemeasures, longoverdue,areinadequate.Trumanhasalsotakentwo othertimidstepstogetmorewheatforexport.Hehas orderedthemilerstoextractahigherpercentageof the wheatkernel ingrindingtheirflour;thiswillgainabout 25millionbushels.*Andhehasforbiddentheuseof *Theordercalls for80%extraction,insteadof theprevious 70%.This willmakeourbreadmorenutritious,tastierandslightly darker.Theorder,ofcourse,isbitterlyopposedbythemilersand bakers,becausethemoreof thewheatkernelthat isextracted,the lesschancethere is of theflourspoiling.Also, thewhiterbread is,thelonger it willkeepfresh.Theconcentrationof themilling industryinafewhugecorporationslocatedinMinneapolis,andthe similarhighdegreeofconcentration inbaking,sothat a fewbig corporationslikeWardsandBondsupplyvastareasfromcentral bakeries—thesefactsmakeit of primeimportanceto themillers wheatin theproductionofbeveragealcoholandbeer. (Brotherhoodofnationsnote: in1945,Americanwhisky distilersincreasedproduction25%over1944.) Imayconcludewithanewsitemfromthe Times financialpageofFebruary10:"Thepicturepaintedbythe ChicagograintradeforEuropeis farblackerthanadmitedofficially,butthescarcityofgrainabroadhasbeen knownto theDepartmentofAgriculture,thecombined wheatboardandhighGovernmentandreliefoficialsfor atleastsixmonths,brokerssaid."Thegraintradersalso predictedthatthe1946-7cropyearwouldalsobeoneof "acutefoodshortage"abroad. Stalin'sElectionStalin'sspeechofFebruary9wasanim- Broadcast po r t an t statement of policy. To the foreignministries of Britainandthe USA,itwasaformal"resignation"fromthewartimealliance.To theRussianpeople,atwhomitwasprimarily aimed,it justifiedsocialism(or rather"theSovietsocial system"asStalintermedit throughoutperhapsasignific- antverbalshift)asagoodthingbecauseit winswars, whichareassumedtobeman'schronicfatebecauseofthe wickednessof allnationsexcepttheSovietUnion. WhatStalinsaidmaybebrieflysummarized,sincehe alwayssayseverythingat leastthreetimesas: "Moreover,afterthiswarnoonedaredanymoretodenythe vitalityoftheSovietstatesystem.Now it isnolongera questionofthevitalityoftheSovietstatesystem,sincethere canbenodoubtof itsvitalityanymore."(Ontheevidence ofStalin'sbarbarousoratoricalstylealone,onecould deducethebureaucraticinhumanityandtheprimitivenessof modernSovietsociety.)Hismainpoints,then,were: (1)Thewarwas"noaccident"butrather"theinevitable resultof thedevelopmentof . . .monopolycapitalism." ("OurMarxistsdeclarethatthecapitalistsystemofworld economyconcealselementsofcrisisandwar.") (2) We wonthewar;notawordaboutLend-Leaseor anyhelpfromtheAnglo-Americanmilitaryoperations. ("Ourvictoryimpliesthat itwastheSovietarmedforces thatwon.OurRedArmyhaswon.") (3)Ourvictoryproveswehaveagoodsocialsystem, thebestinfact.("Thewarhasrefutedalltheassertionsof theforeignpressaswithoutfoundation.Thewarhas shownthattheSovietsocialsystemisatrulypopularsys- tem,issuedfromthedepthsofthepeopleandenjoyingits mightysupport. . . .TheSovietsocialsystemis . . . fully viableandstable.") (4)Themilitaryvictorywaspossiblebecauseofthein- dustrialbasecreatedbythefirstthreeFiveYearPlans, whicharepresentedasahistoricalyuniqueachievement oftheviableandstableSovietsystem. ("In 1913our countryproduced4,220,000tonsofpigiron . . . in1940, 15,000,000tonsofpigiron. . . .Asyousee,thedifference is colossal . . . anunprecedenteddevelopment in pro- du ( c5 ti ) o Tn h .") isachievementwaspossiblebecausewhile "in capitalistcountriesindustrializationusualystartswithlight industry","inourcountrytheCommunistPartyreversed theusualpathandbegan. ..withthedevelopmentofheavy ind (6u ) s T tryh ." epastFiveYearPlanswerejustifiedby thevicandbakersthat theirproductbe,aboveallelse,durable. I t is just ourbadluckthat their flourcomessoclosetobeingachemically "inert"substance, likeplaster, that ratsandcockroachesaresaid tofleefrom it (whichdoesnotdispleasethemillers,whodon't getanysalesfromcockroaches),whiletheirwhitebread in taste andtexturecloselyresemblesmoistflannel. (On thismatter of bread,seeJamesRorty'sarticles inTheNewLeader andelsewhere.) BibliotecaGinoBianco
MARCH,1946 torywoninWorldWarHandthefuturePlanswill,by implicationbesimilarlyjustifiedbyvictoryinWorldWar III. ("Thepartyintendstoorganizea new mightyup- surgeofnationaleconomy,whichwillenableustoincrease thelevelofourproductionthreefold. . .50,000,000tons ofpigironayear. . . .Onlyundersuchconditionswill ourcountrybeinsuredagainstanyeventuality.Perhaps threenewFive-YearPlanswillberequiredtoachieve this,ifnotmore.But itcanbedone,andwemustdoit.") ThustheFiveYearPlansareadmitedtohavehadnothingtodowithabetterwayoflifebuttohavebeensimply militarymeasures.ThistoStalinappearsentirelynatural: makingwarsuccessfulyhascometobetheacknowledged aimofSoviet"socialism",andthesupremetestofasocial system,fortheStalinbureaucracy,hasnothingtodowith Life,LibertyandthePursuitofHappiness,norwithLiberty EqualityandFraternity,norwithMarx'sKingdomofFree- dom,butquitebluntly:canitwinwars?Evenonthis level,onemustrejectasunfoundedtheclaimthatonly SovietismcouldhaveindustrializedRussiasoquickly. CapitalisminAmericaproducedcomparablyspeedyresults inthedecades1850-1870:andinRussiaitselfasimilar growthtookplaceaftertheliberationoftheserfs.(Cf. EngelslettertoDanielsonofSept.22,1892,on"thehothouseprocessoffosteringindustrialrevolution"inRussia after1861"which. . .cramsintotwentyyearsadevelop- mentwhichotherwisemighthavetakensixtyormore years.")But it is true,asStalinboasts,thattheCom- munistshave"reversedtheusualpath"ofcapitalistdevelopmentandbegunwithheavyinsteadoflightindustry.What aworldofhumanmiseryinthatdryeconomicformulation! Lightindustrymeansconsumers'goods,heavyindustry meanssteelanddynamosandotherinedibleandunwearablethings.Theonlywayto begin withheavyindustryis forthemassofworkerstolivelikebeasts,astheyhavein factbeenlivingforagenerationunderStalin.Nowonder theRedArmysoldierswouldcommitanycrimeforthe possessionofawatchorabicycle.Butallofthisis,of course,necessarybecausetheSovietfatherlandisencircled bywicked"monopolycapitalist"nationsthesimilarityto whatHitlertoldtheGermanpeopleisstrikingand"our Marxistsdeclarethatthecapitalistsystemofworldeconomy concealselementsofcrisisandwar."Therefore,theRussianpeoplemaylookforwardtothreemoreFiveYear Flans"ifnotmore",andtheRedArmy,intheOrderof theDaywhichStalinissuedonFebruary22,isenjoined during"thenew[i.e.,post-Hitler]conditions"to"vigilantly guardthepeaceful,creativelaboroftheSovietpeople. . . andmakethebordersof ourmotherlandimpregnable againstenemies." WarasanInstitution(7) WordsandWar bySimoneWeil EDITOR'SNOTE:Thisanklewasoriginallypublished intheApril1and 15,1937, issuesofNouveauxCahiers (Paris)underthetitle:"NeRecommenconspaslaGuere deTroie."ThetranslationisbyBowdenBroadwater.The articlehasbeenshortened,forspacereasons,thedeletions beingindicatedbydots. OUR visionsofsecurity,nowthatscientificmanhas natureunderlockandkey,aredisappearinginthe destructionwhichwar-makingmanisbringingon himself.Ifthedangerisgreat,itisnodoubtpartlybecause ofthepoweroftheweaponstechnologyhasputintoour hands.Butweaponsdonotgooffbythemselves,anditisunfairtoblameoninertmaterasituationforwhichweour- selvesbearfullresponsibility.Themostdisastrouswarshave somethingincommonwhich,thoughitmaycomfortsome observers,istheirrealdanger: theyhavenodefinableaims. Throughouthistory,themostdesperatewarshavebeenthose whichwerefoughtfornothing.Thisparadox,whenwe cometounderstanditbetter,mayprovetobeoneofthe keystohistory. It iscertainlythekeytoourownperiod. Whenaconflicthasawel-definedaim,eachsidecan calculatethecostanddecidewhetherit istoohigh;generaly,acompromiseismoreprofitabletoeitherthana victory.But ifaconflicthasnoobjective,wehavenothing tomeasure,orweigh,orcompare;compromiseisinconceiv- able;wecanonlyPm:Weabatle'simportancebyitssacriBibliotecaGinoBianco fices,andasthesesacrificesperpetualyaskfornewones, warswouldneverstopifhumanforcesdidnothavetheir limits.Thisparadoxissoviolentthatitescapesanalysis. Alcultivatedmenknowitsperfectexemplar,butsomekind offatalitymakesusreadaboutitwithoutunderstanding. TheGreeksandTrojansslaughteredeachothertenyears overHelen;exceptforthedilettantewarriorParis,she meantnothingtoanyofthem;theyallwishedthatshehad neverbeenborn.Herpersonwassofaroutofscalewith thismonstrouswarthatnoonetookherformorethana symboloftherealgoalwhichcouldnotbedefinedbecause itdidnotexist.Theyguessedthatthewarwasimportant fiOmtheincontestabledeathsandwiththese,itsimportancepassedbeyondassignablelimits.Hectordreamedthat theGreekswoulddestroyhiscity,massacrehisfatherand brothers,anddegradehiswifetoaservitudeevenmore terriblethandeath;Achilesknewhewashandingoverhis fathertothemiseryandhumiliationofdefenselessoldage; thepeopleknewthattheirfamilylifewouldbedestroyed bysuchalongabsence;stillnoneofthemthoughtthiswas toogreatapricebecausetheywereallfightingforan ilusionwhosevaluewasthepricetheyhadtopay.Minerva andUlyssesonlyhadtorecal thesuferingsofthedead tosilencetheGreekswhowantedtogohometotheir families.Threethousandyearslater, in1917,Poincare usedpreciselythesameargumentagainsttheadvocatesof compromise.Nowadays,inordertoexplainourownfrenzy
70 polities forruins,wetrytolaytheblameonBigBusiness.But thereisnoneedtogosofar.TheHomericGreekshadno munitions-makers,nosteeltrusts.Indeed,inthemindsof Homer'scontemporaries,thegodsofGreekmythologytook therolesweassigntomysteriouseconomicoligarchies. Neithergodsnorplotsdrivementoruin.Humannature sufices. TODAY,nothingdistressestheinteligentobservermore thantheilusorycharacterofourconflicts.TheTrojanwarmademoresense.At itshearttherewasawoman atleast,awomanofperfectbeauty.Forus,capitalized nounstakeherrole. Ifwesqueezeoneofthesewords,all bloatedwithbloodandtears,wefinditempty.Wordswith content,however,arenotmurderers.Oneofthemmaybe bloodstained,butonlybriefly,andmoreaccidentalythan not.Butmenwillspilltorrentsofbloodandpileruinon ruinformeaningless,upper-casewords,and,sincethey meannothing,neverfindanythingwhichcorrespondsto them.Successistheannihilationofwhomeversupportsthe enemywords;because—anothercharacteristicthesewords comeinantagonisticpairs.Onewordbyitself, ifwe botheredtodefineit,mightnotbetotalywithoutmeaning. Butadefinedwordlosesitscapitals,andbecomesnomore thanareferencethathelpsustograspataconcretereality, ataconcreteobjective,atamethodofaction.Thoughit mayseemstrange,thedeflationofcongenitalyswollen wordsandthedefinitionofothers,alongwiththeclarificationsofideas,couldsavehumanlives. Wearenotequaltothis.Theglitterofourcivilization coversanintelectualdecadence.Wedonot,liketheGreeks, givesuperstitionanyspecialplace,anditrevengesitself byinvading,undercoverofanabstractvocabulary,the wholerealmofthought.Ourscienceisawarehouseof themostexquisiteintelectualmechanismsforsolvingthe mostcomplexproblems,butweourselvescannotapplythe basicmethodsofrationalthought.Weseemtohavelost theveryrudimentsofinteligence,thenotionsofmeasure, standard,anddegree;ofproportionandrelation,ofaffinity, ofconsequence.Togetafirmergrasponhumanevents, wepeopleourpoliticalworldwithmonstersandmyths; werecognizenothingbutentities,absolutes,finalities.Look atanywordinourpoliticalandsocialvocabulary:Nation, Security,Capitalism,Communism,Fascism,Order,Authority,Property,Democracy.Weneversay"Democracyinso faras. . ."or"Capitalismtotheextent. . ."Anexpressionlike"insofaras. . ."taxesourintellectualcapacity. Eachoneofthesecatchwordsstandsforanabsolutereality, freedfromallconditions;foranabsoluteendinadif- ferentworldthantheworldofaction;foranabsoluteevil; andthenweputanythingandeverythingunderthesewords. Reality,however,shiftsandchanges;isdeterminedbythe interplayofexternalnecessities;operatesundercertaincon- ditionsandwithincertainlimits.Yetweact,wefight,we struggle,wesacrificeourselvesandothersforfixedand isolatedabstractionswhichcannotbeharmonizedeither witheachotherorwithconcretereality.Ourbragging technologicalagethrashesatwindmils. rXAMPLESofthisdeadlynonsenseareeasytofind. 140Nationalivalryiseaprizeone.Whenweputtheblame Bibliotecauinobianco onwarringcapitalists,weignoretheintricatenetworkof competition,pyramiding,andtrustswhichdisregardsnationalboundariesandspreadsovertheworld.Theclash ofinterestscansetinoppositiontwoFrenchgroupsand uniteeachofthemtoaGermangroup.Frenchsmelting companiescompetewithrivalGermancompanies,but it makeslittlediferencetotheLorrainemineownerswhether FrenchmenorGermansconverttheirore,andthewinegrowersandtheParisspecialtyhouseshavetheirstakein Germanprosperity.Thus,ourtheoryaboutnationalrivalry isabsurd. I f wesaynationalismconcealscapitalistmo- tives,wemustsaywhose.Themineowners?BigSteel's? Themachine-shopowners?Theutilitymagnates?The textilemanufacturers?Thebankers?Sincetheirinterests conflict,surelynotallofthem;andifwesetleonasingle group,wemustexplainhowitgetscontrolofthestate.At anygivenmoment,statepolicycoincideswiththeinterests ofsomegrouporother,butwhatofit?Withtheworld circulationofcapital,acapitalistcanputpressureaseasily onaforeignnationasonhisown.Worldeconomyfolows politicalstructureonlysofarasstateauthorityforcesitto; buttheformwhichstateauthoritytakescannotbeexplained bythesimpleinterplayofeconomicinterests."National interest"isnotevencapitalistinterest."Wethinkweare dyingforourcountry,"AnatoleFrancesaid,"butwedie forafewindustrialists."It isrealyworse.Wedon'tdie foranythingassubstantial,astangibleasabig-business maWn. ecannotsaythatnationalinterestisactualythemutual interestofindustry,commerce,andbankingbecausethey havenone;northelife,liberty,andprosperityofthecitizens,sincetheyconstantlysacrificetheirprosperity,liberty, andlifefornationalinterest Ifweanalysemodernhistory, weconcludethatnationalinterestisthestate'sreadinessfor war. In1911FrancewaswilingtogotowaroverMorocco,butwhywasMoroccosoimportant?Becauseofthe nativetroopswhichNorthAfricacouldsupply,andbecauserawmaterialsandmarketshelptomakenational economyindependentfromthestandpointofmakingwar. Whatacountrycalls"vitaleconomicinterests"isnotwhat enablesitscitizenstolive,butwhatenablesthemtomake war;thus,it iseasiertostartawaroveroilthanwheat Wemakewartokeeporincreasethemeansofmakingit. Internationalpoliticsrotateinthisviciouscircle.Our "nationalprestige"isourabitytomakeothercountries feelhelplessbeforeus.Our"nationalsecurity"isade- lusionbywhichweaimtotakethemeansofwarfromevery countrybutourown.Aself-respectingnation,hishort, wilgotoanylength,i.e.war,topreserveitsrighttomake waBr. utwhymusttherebewar?Weknownomorethanthe TrojansknewwhytheydefendedHelen.Thatiswhythe peace-plansofthosemenofgoodwill,ourstatesmen,are soworthless.Theycouldfindcompromisesifopposingin- terestsrealydividedtheircountries.Butwheneconomic andpoliticalinterestscenteraroundtheabilitytomakewar, howcanstatesmenfindapeacefulmeanbetweenclashing interests?Theveryconcept,"Nation",mustgo. Or rather,"National:"formilionsofcorpses,orphans,and disabledmen,tearsanddespair,arethecontentofthis otherwisemeaninglessword.
MARCH.1946 7 1 THEquarrelbetweenfascismandcommunismisanother exampleoflethalnonsense.Thefactthatitforcesus intobothcivilandinternationalwarsmakesitperhapsthe mostdangeroussymptomofourintellectualbankruptcy. Ifweexaminethepresentmeaningofthesetwoterms,we findaboutthesamepoliticalandsocialconceptions.The samemarshallingofindividualandsociallife;thesame franticmilitarization;thesamedeceptiveunanimity,obtainedbythecoercionofasinglegroupwhichidentifies itselfwiththestateandholdsontoitspowerbythisconfusion;thesameserfdomoftheworking-classesinsteadof thewage-system.GermanyandRussia,morealikeinstructurethananyothertwonations,threateneachotherwith internationalcrusades,andeachdiscoversinhisopponent theApocalypticBeastHowcanwestillthinkthereisany rationaloppositionbetweenfascismandcommunism?A fascistvictoryonlymeans:wipeoutthecommunists;a communistvictoryonlymeans:wipeoutthefascists.Antifascistandanticorununistareequalymeaninglessterms. Theantifascists'standis:anythingbutfascism,anything beingfascismunderthenameofcommunism.Theanti- communists'standis:anythingbutcommunism,anything beingcommunismunderthenameoffascism.Forthisfine cause,eachenemycampresignsitselftodeath,andprepares tokill.Duringthesummerof1932,inthestreetsofBer- lin,crowdsoftengatheredabouttwolaborersorwhitecolarworkers,onecommunistandtheotherNazi;each ofthemalwaysfound,afterarguingawhile,thathewas putingforwardthesameprogramastheother,butafter amoment'sconfusion,thisdiscoverymadehimall the angrier.Thatwasfour-and-a-halfyearsago;theNazis stilltorturetheGermancommunists,andacatastrophicwar betweentheantifascistsandtheanticommuniststhreatens Franceherself. I f thishappens,theTrojanwarwilllook likeamodelofgoodsense;forthoughwemayagreewith asecondaryGreekpoetthatonlytheghostofHelenwas presentatTroy,evenaghostismorerealthantheconflict betweenfascismandcommunism. Whateverelseit is,theoppositionbetweendictatorship anddemocracy,whichaliesitselfwithorder versus freedom,isatrueopposition.But it issillytothinkaswe dothesedays,thatoneentirelyexcludestheother,for neithertermisanabsolute;it isacriterionwhichhelpsus tojudgeasocialstructure'scharacter.Clearly,therecan benoabsolutepartyordictatorship,oraperfectdemo- cracy,forthesocialorganismisacompoundalwaysand everywhere,invaryingdegrees,oflibertyandauthority. Thedegreeofdemocracyisintherelationsbetweenthe partsofthesocialmachine,anddependsonconditions whichaffecttheoperationofthemachine;andsoit is theserelationsandconditionsthatwesawchange. In- stead,westartwiththeideathatallgroups,nations,or partiestrulyembodyeitherDictatorshiporDemocracy, andaccordingtowhetherourtasteisfororderorfor freedom,wefeeldriventowipeoutits"opposite."Many Frenchmenhonestlybelievethattheirmilitaryvictoryover GermanywouldbeavictoryforDemocracy.Freedom residesinFranceandtyrannyinGermanyastheyseeit; soforMoliere'scontemporaries,asedativevirtueresided inopium. If "nationaldefense"onedayturnsFranceinto anarmedcampandclampsthenationundermilitaryrule, andthisnewFrancegoestowaragainstGermany,these BibliotecaGinoBianco menwill letthemselvesbekilled,afterkillingasmany Germansastheycan,withthetouchingillusionthatthey aregivingtheirbloodforDemocracy.Itneverstrikesthem thatNazismwasbornoutofaspecificsituation,that it mightbeworthmoretostimulateconditionswhichwould lettheGermanstaterelaxitsholdthantokillboysfrom HamburgandBerlin. . . . THEclassstruggle, atermwhichmightbemoreprecise, isthemostfundamentalandserious,perhapstheone realconflictwhichdivideshumanbeings.Whatislegiti- mate,vital,basicistheeternalstrugglebetweenthosewho ruleandthosewhoobey,sincesocialpoweritselfentails theobliterationofhumandignityinthosebelowThe ruling-class,whetheritknowsitornot,alwaysthinksless ofitssubjectsthanitself.Whereverauthorityexertsitself, itcannotrespect,oronlyinspecialcases,thehumanquali- tiesofitsinstruments. If ittakestheatitudethatmenare things,quiteincapableofresistance,itfindsthesethings verymaleable;foratthethreatofdeath,whichisthe supremesanctionofauthority,menaremorecompliantthan inertobjects.Aslongasthereisasocialhierarchy,whateveritsform,thebulkofmankindwillhavetofightfor itshumanrights.Theresistancefromthetop,if itordinarilyseemsinjust,hasitsownbasisinreality.First,from personalreasons;exceptforrarecases,theprivilegeddo notwanttogiveupanyrealormoralprivileges.Then, fromhigherones.Whoeverholdsauthoritythinksithis missiontopreserveorder,whichisessentialtosociety,and hecannotbelieveinanyorderbuttheonethereis.He isnotentirelywrong;untilanotherorderbecomesareal- ity,nooneknowswhetheritwillbeviable;forthereis definitesocialprogressonlywhenthepressurefrombelow changesthebalanceofpower,andcompelsnewsocial relations.Theencounterbetweenthepressurefrombelow andtheresistancefromaboveproducesaconstantlyunstableequilibrium,whichdefinesfrommomenttomoment thesocialstructure.Thisisnotwar; itcanchangeinto one,butitisnotpredestined.Antiquityhasleftusthestory ofTroy:but,also,ithasleftthestoryofthevigorous, unitedactionbywhichtheRomanplebeians,withoutblood, emergedfromastateborderingonslaverywithnewrights, andwithtribunestoprotectthem.Exactlyinthesameway, theFrenchworkers,bytakingoverthefactories,butwithoutviolence,woncertainbasicrights,alongwiththeirown representatives. ARTSRomehadagreatadvantageovermodernFrance. Insocialmatersitknewneitherabstractionsnorabsolutes,neithercapitalizedwordsnorisms. . .Pryintoany term,anyexpressionofourpoliticalvocabulary; it is emptyinside.Thisappliestothatpoliticalcry,sopopular atelection-time,"Smashthetrusts!"Atrustisaneconomic monopolythatbig-businessuses,notforthepublicinterest, buttoincreaseitsownpower.Andwhatissobadabout this? It isthefactthatamonopoly,instrumentaly,hasa wil-to-powerthatisalientothepublicgood.Still,this isn'twhatwewanttosmash;ourtargetisthefact,unim- portantinitself,thatthisarbitrarypowerisinthehands ofaneconomicoligarchy.Fortheseoligarchies,wepro- posetoexchangethestate,whichwieldsanarbitrarypower quiteasalientopublicwelfare;indeed,sincepowerbe-
72 p o l i t i e s comesmilitaryratherthaneconomicinthestate, it isa muchgreatermenacetothoseordinarypeoplewhowould liketolive.So,too,withtheowningclass,whichishostile tostatesocialismalthough itapprovesofprivatemonopolies,whichhavetheeconomicandtechnicalinconveni- encesofstatemonopolies,andperhapsothersaswel • • • WHAT dothepeopleforwhomtheword,"capitalism", representsabsoluteevil what dotheyhave in mind?Our societycrusheshumanbeingsthroughre- straintandoppression,painfulinequality,needlesssufering.Ontheotherhand, it ischaracterized,fromtheecon- omicpointofview,bycertainmodesofproduction,consumption,andexchange,whichareinacontinuousstateof flux,andwhichdependonafewbasicrelationsbetween theproductionandcirculationofgoods,betweenthecir- culationofgoodsandmoney,betweenmoneyandproduction,betweenmoneyandconsumption.Wetakeitonour- selvestocrystalizetheseseparateandshiftingphenomena intoanabstraction,calledCapitalism,whichcannotbe defined,andthencredit it withall ourownandothers' hardships. Amancanprovehimselfbydevotinghis life totheoverthrowofcapitalism,orwhatamountstothesame, torevolution; fortodayrevolutionhasthispurelynegative senAs se. the"OverthrowofCapitalism"ismeaningless,from thefactthatCapitalismisanabstraction,andasitdoesnot permitcertainspecificcorrectionsin theregime—corectionsarecontemptuouslycalled"reforms" i t canonly meanwipingoutthecapitalists,especialythosewhodon't declarethemselvesagainstCapitalism.Apparently, it is easiertokill,eventodie,thantoaskoneselfafewsimple questions,suchasthese:dothelaws,theconventionswhich actuallyregulateoureconomiclifeformasystem?What, ifany,tiebindsthisorthateconomicphenomenontothe rest?Howmuchwouldthemodificationofoneofthese economiclawsaffecttheothers? To whatextentdothe burdensoursocietyimposesstemfromthisor thateconomicconvention? To whatextentfromthesumof all theseconventions?What istheefectoffactorscommon toalleconomicsystems?Of factorswecouldeliminate withouteliminating"thesystem?"Whatnewburdens, passing,orpermanent,wouldthetransitiontoanewsystem inflict?Andmightnotanewsocialsystemimposespecial burdensof itsown? I f oneseriouslystudiedtheseprob- lems,perhapsonecouldstillsaythatcapitalismisanevil, butonlyarelativeevil,andthenanewsocialsystemcan onlybeproposedinviewofalesserevil.Whateverthe change,itspurposeshouldbespecified. THISwholecriticismappliesjustaswell totheother camp,replacingtheproblemof thelowerclasses' hardshipswiththeelite'sanxietytosafeguarditself,and theurgetochangewiththeurgetoretain.TheownerclassassumesthatanyonewhoanticipatestheendofCap- italismisanenemyoforder,evenassumesthisofaperson whowantstoreformit,becauseitdoesnotknowtowhat extentandunderwhatcircumstancestheeconomicrelations lumpedtogetheras"Capitalism"arenaturaltoorder.Not knowing,besides,whatmodificationmaybedangerous, it oftenpreferstoholdontoeverything,unawarethat, if timesarechancing,thisitselfisachangewhichmayend BibliotecaCinoBianco indisorder.As forthepeople,althoughtheeconomiclaws maychangedailybeforetheireyes,theyinvokethemas religiouslyastheunwritenlawsof Antigone oncewere invoked.PreservingCapitalismalsomeansnothing to them;theydonotknowwhat,when,howmuchtopreserve; again,itmeanstowipeouteverybodywhotalksaboutits fall. Thestrugglebetweenthefoesanddefendersof capitalism,astrugglebetweeninnovatorswhodonotknow whattoinnovate,andconservativeswhodonotknowwhat toconserve,isablindman'sbuffwhichby itsverylack ofpurposerisksmutualobliteration. Similarthingsaretruefortheconflictwithinthesmaler fieldofindustry. Aworkerinstinctivelyconnectsanyhard- shipsheenduresinthefactorywiththeowner;henever askshimselfwhether,underallotherkindsofownership, theadministrationwouldnothave toimposeatleast some ofthesehardships,orevenidenticalones,orperhapsmore; henolongeraskswhichoneshemightcutoutbyadirect atackontheircauses,ratherthanonthepropertysystem itself.Hisconflictwithownershipismixedwithahuman being'snaturalprotestagainstahardlife. Theowner, fromhisviewpoint,isrighttoholdontohisauthority.For managementhasits realfunctions:supervisingandco- ordinatingthework;maintaining,bymeansof acertain pressure,astandardproduct;andanysystemofenter- prise,wherethiscoordinationandsupervisioncanbeexpected,givesmanagementaresponsiblerole. But the owneralsobaseshisauthorityonacertainatmosphereof submissionandrespectwhichneednothaveanythingto dowiththeexecutionofgoodwork;and,furthermore,as soonasheseesanundercoveroropenrevoltamonghis workers,healwaysattributes it toa fewindividuals,although revolt,whetherstormyorsilent,aggressiveorde- spairing, isphysicalyandmoralyessentialto alloverburdenedhumanbeings. Ifhisfeelingofdignityconfusestheworker'scaseagainst theowner,theowner'sself-regardandprofessionalpride partlyaccountforhisfearof"troublemakers;"eachside expectstheimpossible,andcannotpossiblysetanylimits ontheconflict.Whereasstrikescaledondefinitepoints arearbitratedwithouttoomuchtrouble,others, inwhich neithersidehasanyrealobjective,remindusofwars; strikeswherenothingisrealortangibleexceptthehalt in production,thedeteriorationofmachines,thesuffering, thehunger,thewomens' tears,thericketychildren;while bothsidesobstinatelyrefusetogiveway.Herealreadyis thegermofcivilwar. If oneanalyzestheotherwordsandsloganswhich, throughouthumanhistory,haveinspiredthecombinedspirit ofsacrificeandcruelty,theyturnouttobeequalyempty. Nevertheless,thesebloodthirstyabsolutesmusthavesome linkwithreal life. Theyhave,indeed.TherewasperhapsonlythephantomofHelenatTroy,buttheGreek armyandtheTrojanarmywerenotphantoms;likewise, if "nation"andthenationalisticslogansarenonsensical, theseparatenationswiththeirownbureaucratsandtariffs, theirprisonsandarsenalsandbarracksareveryreal.• • • Thecatchwordsforandagainstcapitalismaremeaningless butpartisansformbehindthem.Everyemptyabstraction hasitsfaction. I f anyabstractionexistsforwhichthisis nottrue it isharmless;also,groupswhichdonotform aboutanabsolutestandachanceofnotbeingdangerous.
MARCH,1946 73 JulesRomainsmagnificentlyrepresentedthegroup-absolute whenhegaveDr.Knockthewords,"Abovetheinterestof theinvalidandtheinterestofthedoctoristheinterestof medicine." It isfunnybecausethemedicalprofessionhas notyetannouncedit;adictumlikethisissuesdailyfrom alsocialorganismsstrivingforpowerorholdingontoit. Theabsurditieswhichmakeourhistoryanendlessnight- marearerootedinonebasicabsurdity,thenatureofpower. Thereisarealplaceforpowerinsociety,becausehuman lifeisunthinkablewithoutorder;butpowerisarbitrarily assumed,sincemenareequalornearlyso;yetif itisseen tcbearbitrary,therewouldbenomorepower.Prestige i.e.,ilusion istheheartofpower.. . . Naturaly,astateinterpretsnationalinterestaswarpowerwhenitissuroundedbyotherstateswhich,ifthey seeitisweak,areabletosubjugateit.Betweenkeepingup intheracetoprepareforwar,orexposingoneselftothe mercyofarmedstates,thereisnomiddlecourse.General disarmamentwouldonlyworkif itwerecomplete,which isscarcelyconceivable.Furthermore,themomentastate failstostanduptoanaliennation,itrisksanuprising fromitsownsubjects.PriamandHectorcouldnotsimply returnHelen;theywouldhaveincitedtheGreeks,atthe walsofwhatwouldthenseemadefenselesscity,witheven hoterideasofplunder;theywouldhaveriskedageneral uprisingatTroy,notthattheTrojanswouldbeangryabout Helen,butbecausethementowhomtheysubmitedwould nolongerseemal-powerful.Awhisperofpeacefromone ofthetwocampsinSpainencouragedtheenemycamp,in- creasedtheweightoftheofensive;and,also,riskeduprising-withinthecamp'sownlines.Likewise,amanwhois neitherananticommunistoranantifascistmaynotbestirred Lytheclashofalmostidenticalideologies;butsincethe twocampsexist,andthestrongerwillcrushtheweaker,he mustpickasideandfightforhislife,meanwhile,therival commanders,tokeeptheirholdonthetroops,spurthem ontodestroytheenemy;inshort,assoonastheseblocs haveacertainpower,neutralityisuntenable.. . . Thefundamentalcontradictionofhumansocietyisthat everysocialsituationrestsonabalanceofpower,onan equilibriumofpressuresliketheequilibriumoffluids;but aboosttoonecountry'sprestigeisablowtoothers'.Yet prestigeisinseparablefrompower.Thisisanimpasse thathumanitycanonlyescapebyamiracle.Buthuman lifeismadeupofmiracles.Whowouldbelievethata Gothiccathedralcouldstand?Aswearenotalwaysat war,perhapswemayhaveanindefinitepeace.Aproblem posedwithitsknownquantitiesisnearitssolution.But wehaveneverposedtheproblemofinternationalandcivil peacthisway. CLOUDSofemptyabsoluteshidetheproblem'sknown quantities,eventhefactthatthisisaproblemto solve,andnotaninescapablefate.Theydullourminds; theycarryustoourdeath,butwhatisinfinitelyworse, theymakeusforgetthevalueof life. The pursuitof absolutes ineverysphereofpoliticalandsociallifeisnow asignofcivichealth.Thischaseisnotaneasyone;for ourintelectualatmosphereiskindtothefloweringand increaseofabsolutes. I f weremediedourscientificvul- garizationandourteachingmethods,randownthegross Fupeirstitionwhichfa.gyprsanabstractvocabulary,restored BibliotecaGinoBianco túgoodusagesuchformsas"withinthelimitsof," "in so faras,""onconditionthat,""inrelationto,"wewould doourcontemporariesagreat,practicalservice.Thereis certainlynolackofpeopletopreachappeasement;but,in general,theobjectoftheirsermonsisnottoawakenminds andtoeliminatefalseconflicts,buttolullandsmoothaway therealones.Thespeech-makerswhounderstandinterna- tionalpeaceasanindefinite statusquo fortheexclusive benefitoftheFrenchnation,ortheadvocatesofsocial peacewhomerelywanttoholdontotheirprivilegesorto leavechangetotheprivileged,arethemostdangerous enemiesofinternationalandcivilwelfare.Forthesolution isnottoartificiallyfixthepowerratio,whichalways changes,andwhichitsvictimsalwaystrytochangefurther; butrathertodifferentiatetheimaginaryandthereal,and bythis,todiminishtheriskofwar,andyetnotgiveup thestruggle,whichHeraclituscalstheconditionoflife. THEMYSTERIOUSEAST FreshfromanaudiencewithEmperorHirohito,MajordeSeversky saidtheEmperorbelievedthataviationwouldplayamajorrole in cementingfriendshipamongthenationsof theworld. —N.Y.Times,Nov.3,1945. ENTERINGINTOTHESPIRITOFTHETHING MajorThomasWinwood,Britishofficeractingasdefensecounsel forJosefKramer,formercommandantof theBelsendeathcamp,said that"theconcentrationcampscontainedundesirableelements fromthe dregsof theghettoes of Europe." —N.Y.Times,Oct.12,1945. THEMILITARYMIND:PeacePlanningSection Gen.Carl A.Spaatz,newChiefof theArmyAirForces,asserted thatthe onlywaytopreventwarwastostop itbefore it started.Air power,headded,gavethepeace-lovingcountriestheweaponstodo justthatand"for thefirsttimeinhistory it ispossibletodestroyan enemywhichdoesnofighting." —N.Y.Times,Jan.25. THEOCCUPATIONFOLLIES:AMERICANVERSION. One of theproblemsthat isvexingtheAmericanmilitarygovernmentis that of re-educatingtheKoreansinregard to thebonuses andbribesthatwerepaidbytheJapaneseinaneffort togetproduction. . . .Now,ourmilitarygovernmentnumbersamongitstasks theassignmenttopersuadetheKoreansthatliberationanddemocracy oughttobesohighlyprized that peoplewillwork for lessmoney. (TheSaturdayEveningPost,Jan.12.) The Germanmustbeprovidedwithaconscienceby theuseof propaganda.(ReviewinN.Y.Times,Feb.10.) ThefuturestatusofVeneziaGiuliabeingunknown,Italianboysand girlsaretaught inprimers"Hail tomycountry!"insteadof "Hailto Italy!"asformerly.WhenthebigpowersdecidewhatcountryVenezia Giuliaisgoingtobelongto,LieutenantSimonithinks it willbe relatively easyto tell theschoolchildrenwhichcountrytheyaregoingto hail.Theywillhailmeanwhilethesimpleideaof "country",so that theycanlearnpatriotism.(N. Y.Herald-Tribune,Nov.26,1945.) AliedHeadquartersisundertaking to censorJapanese popular songs.. . .TheJapanesemustnolongerplaybyradioor print the sheetmusicof"MoonlightonaRuinedCastle,"asentimentalballad. Becauseit referstoacastle,headquartersconsideredthesong"too feudal."At thesametimethecensorsbarred"ChineseNight",asong that ispopularamongChineseChunkingArmytroopsaswel asJapanese. Thesecondproscriptioncausedconsiderablelaughteramong Japanese,whoknowthat theirmilitarytried tostamp it outduring thewarbecauseitwas"toolanguid."NowtheAllieshavedone it forthem,chargingthesongis "toopopular"and,therefore,suspect. (N.Y.Times,Nov.21,1945.) One questionmostfrequentlyaskedby theJapaneseatpresent fumblingwiththeestablishmentofademocraticsystemhere is how, underAmericandemocracy,theYaltaagreementwaspossible. One Japanesetoldthiscorespondent:"Weareusedtoimportantdecisions beingmadewithoutconsultingthepeople,butwedidnot understand thatthiscouldbedoneundertheUnitedStatessystem."(N.Y.Times, Feb.1.)
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